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COMPLETE 



DICTIONARY 



OF 



DRY GOODS 



AND 



HISTORY 



OF 



SILK, COTTON, LINEN, WOOL 



r 



AND OTHER FIBROUS SUBSTANCES 

INCLUDING A FULL EXPLANATION OF THE 

MODERN PROCESSES OF 

SPINNING, DYEING and WEAVING 

With an Appendix Containing 
Various Useful Tables. 



By GEORGE S. COLE. 




"•}_ />'■ 



FOREST CITY PUBLISHING CO., 
WICHITA, KANSAS. 

1890. 






0\ 



Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1890, by 
George S. Cole, in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at 
Washington, D. C. 

All Rights and Privileges Reserved. 



9~ 



& 




The First Web. 



To please the flesh a thousand arts contend,, 
The miser's heap* of gold, the figur'd vest, 
The gem, the silk worm and the purple dye, 

By toil acquired, promote no other end. 



Preface. 



In presenting- to the Dry Goods Trade its first Dictionary of textile 
fabrics the compiler feels confident that the time and labor devoted to 
making - the work accurate and complete will commend it to the favora- 
ble consideration of everyone connected with the business. The objects 
held in view during its preparation were briefly these: 1. To give the 
proper definition and description of every woven fabric and manufac- 
tured article sold over Dry Goods or Clothing counters; 2,. To note the 
peculiarities which disting-uish a fabric, and by which it may be identi- 
fied, and to give such facts in a hand)' and convenient form for reference; 
3. To describe fully the method of weaving or manufacture; 4. To ex- 
plain the origin of the names of all fabrics, and to clothe the dry bones 
of figures and statements with the literature of the subject; 5". To give 
the import duties under the new textile schedules on all goods that are 
imported, raw and manufactured. 

No labor or expense has been spared to make the Dictionary serve the 
purposes for which it is designed; the statements and figures which are 
presented are given only on the faith of recognized authorities, and in 
reducing the chaos of particulars relating to the history of textile fabrics 
strict and careful attention has been paid to accuracy. 

It is remarkable that in a country like ours, so greatly dependent 
upon its manufactures, that not even a classification of the kinds of our 
textile manufactures has ever been attempted, to say nothing of a sys- 
tematic history of them. The only information otherwise obtainable 
on this subject has been brief notices and suggestions printed from time 
to time in various trade papers over the country, and in the ponderous 
encyclopoedic works, whose trade articles when relieved of the heavy, 
obscuring folds of verbal drapery yield very little essence of information; 
so that unless the salesman or merchant is the owner of a set of En- 
cyclopedias or a subscriber to a large number of papers he can at best 



secure but a scant amount of information, and that unsatisfactory and 
meagre in detail. The idea <>f compiling in book form a complete and 
exhaustive Dictionary of Dry (roods originated with the undersigned, 

and therefore in the publication of this work, as far as regards the sub- 
ject matter, it is not in any sense original, and no special claim is made 
to originalitv other than the manner in which" it is put before the public. 
If it will aid the beginner to more fully understand the essential 
points of his chosen occupation, or furnish the more experienced sales- 
man with correct information upon subjects of which he is in ignorance, 
the hope that inspired the preparation of this volume will be fully 
reali'/ed. G. S. C. 



Explanations anci Abbreviations. 



Beam is the flanged roller on which the warp yarn is wound, in mak- 
ing - ready for weaving-. 

Chain. — The warp in weaving-. 

Cop. — The conical ball of thread formed on the spindle of a spinning- 
frame; also a tube upon which silk thread is sometimes wound, instead 
of being - made into skeins. 

Counts. — A system of indicating- the fineness of yarn. 

Fabric. — A woven or felted cloth of any material or style of weaving-; 
anything- produced by weaving or interlacing-, distinctively called 
textile fabric. 

Fell. — The edge of the fabric (in the loom) which has most recently 
been woven. 

Fibre. — A thread or filament; a single natural filament of wool, silk, 
cotton etc. In a collective sense any animal or vegetable substance 
which can be separated into, or used to form, the threads for makino- 
textile fabrics. 

Filling. — The woof or weft threads of a woven fabric. 

Pick. — The insertion of a thread of weft, or filling - . 

Shed. — The opening made in the warp for the passage of the shuttle 
containing the weft. 

Textile. — Woven, or capable of being woven; formed by weaving. 

Warp. — The threads which are extended lengthwise in the loom and 
crossed by the filling or weft; sometimes called the chain, or ends. 

Weft. — The woof or filling of a fabric; the threads that cross the 
warp from selvage to selvage. 

Woof. — The threads that cross the warp in weaving; the weft; filling. 

Yarn. — The thread of cotton, wool, silk, flax, hemp or other material 
spun and prepared for weaving. 

Color is that quality or appearance of a fabric, which is perceived by 
the eye alone, independently of its form; a sensation peculiar to the or- 
gan of vision. 



Pure Colors arc those termed simple or primary, being- red, yellow. 
blue, orange, violet, green and indigo. 

Hue is the distinctive quality of a color, the respect in which colors 
may differ though they have the same luminosity and chroma. Thus 
scarlet and crimson differ in hue, but buff and yellow chiefly in chroma. 
The word hue is always applied to the modifications which it receives 
from the addition of a smaller quantity of another color. 

Chroma is the degree of departure of a color-sensation from that of 
white or gray. 

Tone of a color means the various modifications which that color in 
its greatest intensity, is capable of receiving from white (which lowers 
its tone) or black (which heightens it). In fewer words, it is the mod- 
ification which any color is capable of receiving from the addition of 
black or white. 

Tints are the colors considered as more or less bright by being modi- 
fied bv the addition of white. 

Shade is any degree or variation of a color, as lighter or darker. 

Tariff is the list of rates of duties established by Congress on imported 
goods. 

Ad valorem is the duty, or tariff, on the net value of an invoice of 
goods. Ad valorem duties are levied according to the market value or 
worth of goods at the original place of shipment, as sworn to by the 
owner and verified by the custom appraisers. 

Specific Duty is the duty, or tariff, on the number or quantity, as 
dozens or tons. 

q. v. — quod vide (which see); that is, refer to word or subject which 
immediately precedes the abbreviation. 



A 

DICTIONARY 

OF 

DRY GOODS. 



A 

ABA. — -A coarse woolen material woven of camel's hair or wool, in 
Syria, Arabia and neighboring- countries. It is generall}- woven in 
bright colors. Also the name of an outer garment or covering made of 
the above, very simple in form, worn by the Arabs of the desert. 

ABB WOOL in wool sorting is one of the two qualities known as coarse 
abb and fine abb; the lowest quality of wool. 

ABNET. — Hebrew abnet, a belt. In Jewish antiquity a girdle of fine 
linen, worn b} r priests. In surgery a bandage resembling a priest's girdle. 

ACCA. — From Acre, a cit} T in Syria, whence it was first obtained. A 
rich figured silk fabric, decorated with gold, used in the 14th century. 

ADULTERATION OF FABRICS. --Woolens have been for years past 
largely adulterated with refuse fibres called "shoddy" and "mungo." 
It is wonderful the manner in which this dust can be mixed with chem- 
icals in order to give it sufficient tenuity for spinning. The practice is 
now more largely in vogue than ever, for there is hardly a piece of cheap 
cloth without it. Shoddy, as originally used, was merely the fluff or 
waste from the looms, but now consists of an}- kind of woolen rubbish, 
as old blankets, hose, clothing etc., pulled to pieces in a machine called 
the "devil.'" [See Shoddy.] There is yet another kind of refuse called 
"extract" which is employed for the same purpose. It consists of the 
wool obtained from the rags of mixed goods, that is, rags which have 
a cotton or linen warp. The cotton is destroyed by sulphuric acid, and 
the wool is left intact. 



12 ADUL 

Calicoes and other cheap cotton goods are largely adulterated with 
size and china clay, the object being- to give them increased weight and 
substance. Up to about twenty years ago the sizing of cotton goods 
was effected with a mixture of flour, paste and tallow, by which means 
the tenacity of the warp was increased and the friction of weaving was 
Lessened. To affect this, 2<> per cent of size was used; but in 1862, when 
on account of the war our cotton famine beg-an to be felt, and the long- 
fibred cotton grew so scarce, it was found necessary to give tenacity to 
the warp threads made from short fibre by using- more size. In this 
manner as much as from 50 to 90 per cent of size has got to be used, the 
greater part of it being china clay. Cheap calicoes and muslins are also 
largely impregnated with lime; a cloud of dust flies out of such fabrics 
when they are torn. 

Silks are also made heavier and stouter by the incorporation of dye- 
stuns used expressly for this purpose. These are called "weighted 1 " or 
"loaded" silks. [See Silk.] 

AIUA CANVAS is made of pure linen, and frequently called Java and 
Fancy Oatmeal. It is made in widths varying from 18 to 54 inches, 
in many different colors; also produced in woolen material. A cotton 
cloth of the same make is known by different names, such as Basket. 
Connaught, etc. 

ALAMODE. — A thin glossy silk used for hoods and scarfs. 

ALASKA is the name given to a variety of sandal -shaped overshoes 
having cloth uppers and rubber soles. 

ALBATROSS dress goods properly are a soft fine bunting, and are also 
known by the various names of "Satin Moss," "Vicuna," (the stoutest 
make) "Snowiiake," (which is fluked) "Antique Cloth" etc. It is of an 
irregular weave, which produces a surface-appearance similar to momic 
cloth or cretonne. 

ALBERT CLOTH- -An all-wool material the two sides of which are < d 
different colors, each side finished so that no lining is required; used 
chiefly for men's reversible overcoats. 

ALEXIS. A style of men's fur cap, distinguished by being long and 
deep, and finished without roll or vizor. 

ALPACA is the wooly hair of an animal of the camel tribe, which in- 
habit the mountainous districts of Chili and Peru. In appearance this 
wool is fine, white and glossy, from 2 to 6 inches in length. It retains 
that peculiar gloss and beauty after being woven into textures, which 
particularly distinguish it from all other species of wool. Alpaca is 
shipped to this country in bales of 70 pounds, and is assorted on arrival 
into eight qualities, each suitable for a particular grade of goods. The 



. ANGORA 13 

earliest manufacture of alpaca fabric was in Bradford England, in 1832, 
at which time the fabric was made with a worsted warp and an alpaca 
woolweft, and very heavy. At the present time it is known as a thin, 
shiny, double-fold fabric, usually black, with a line cotton warp. The 
tariff on raw alpaca wool is 12 cents per pound; on the manufactured 
fabric valued at above 40 cents a pound, the duty is 40 cents per pound 
and 50 per cent ad valorem. 

ANGORA WOOL, or MOHAIR.— The wool of the Ang-ora g-oat, orig- 
inally a native of Asia Minor, where it is still principally reared in the 
neighborhood of Angora, a city in the province of Natalia. This textile 
material was first exported, from Turkey to England under the name of 
Mohair in 1820. The increasing demand for, and value of Mohair 
stimulated endeavors to acclimatize the Angora goat in other regions. 
All European endeavors having failed, on account of the humid and un- 
congenial climate of that country, in the year 184<> several flocks were 
imported to this country, and since that time many fresh drafts have 
been obtained from Asia and distributed to Virginia and various South- 
ern states, and to California and Oregon in the West, where they thrive 
best. Angora Mohair in the fleece (in this manner often sold for rugs) 
is the whitest known to the trade, of brilliant lustrous fibre, elastic and 
wiry in character, and totally devoid of felting properties. [See Felt.] 
It attains a length of 4 to 5 inches, but the long fibres are mixed with 
an undergrowth of shorter wool, which in the spinning process is combed 
out as "noils" for separate use. It is a material of enormous durability, 
and owing to its remarkable elasticity it is especially fitted for working 
into long-piled fabrics, such as plush and imitation fur, or in braids and 
bindings, and in boot and shoe laces. It is also largely used for making 
"Utrecht Velvet;" q. v. or furniture plush, for the upholstering of rail- 
way cars etc. In the making of imitation seal skin for ladies wraps, 
Mohair is extensively employed. Many dress fabrics of mixed Mohair 
and cotton, or Mohair and silk are also manufactured, but with the 
changes of fashion such materials are constantly changing m style, 
composition and name. The tariff on Mohair wool is 11 cents per pound; 
on manufactured articles or fabrics valued above 40 cents per pound the 
duty is 44 cents per pound and 50 per cent ad valorem. 

AMERICAN CLOTH.— A name given in England to a cotton cloth pre- 
pared with a glazed and varnished surface to imitate morocco leather, 
used for carriage trimming; known in the United States as Enameled or 
Oil Cloth. 

APPLIQUE. [Appli-ka.] — In modern dress and upholstery, applied or 
sewed on. Thus the gimp or pattern of soiled lace may be sewed upon 
a new ground, or embroidered flowers may be secured to new silk; in 
such case the pattern or ornament is said to be applique, and the whole 



14 APRON . 

applique work. More generally, said <>f one material fixed upon another 
in ornamental work. Point Applique is point lace, in which the design, 
after having been separately made, has been applied to the net which 

forms the foundation. 

APRONS. Ever since our first parents ages and ages ago sewed tig 
leaves into aprons in the garden of Eden, that style of garment has been 
a la mode. We call it by many names now, the fig- leaves of Adam and 
EJvc having been developed by slow degrees into a valuable series of 
pinafores, suitable for the infant in arms, or the man and woman to 
whom labor is the natural result of having come into existence. In 
England aprons tirst came into general use in the 15th century, when 
they were called "barm-skins/' 

ARCTICS. — A variety of rubber overshoes, distinguished by having- a 
cloth top which buckles up over the ankles, rubber heels and soles, and 
and a nappy wool lining. [See GOLOSHES.] 

ARMOZEEN. — French armoisin. A kind of Taffeta q. v. or plain silk 
used for women's dresses in the ISth century and earlier. 

ARMURE is French for "armor." The word is suggestive of the style 
of weaving. In feudal times an armor was worn made of small metal 
plates, sewed to some textile fabric and lapping over one another like 
fish scales, so as to be flexible with every movement of the body. The 
weave of Armure silk is in imitation of this armor, the surface ridge of 
the pattern forming a small diamond or other angled figure. It is heav- 
ier than ordinary dress silk, and is sometimes termed Royal Armure. 

ARRAS cloth takes its name from the town of Arras, situated in the 
north of France. In the 14th century this place was the chief seat of 
French Tapestrv manufacture, for both quality and quantity. Hence 
the term Arras came to mean any sort of Tapestry, q. v. wherever made. 

AS1 >EST( )S — A fine quality of Asbestos has been woven into gl< >ves and 
cloth, which are unaffected by fire. This cloth was formerly used as 
shrouds for dead bodies, and has been recommended for firemen's clothes. 
It is a mineral substance of fibrous texture, but its feeble consisteucv 
has always proved the chief obstacle to its general use among textile 
fabrics. The tariff on Asbestos is 25 percent ad valorem. 

ASTRAKHAN. — Russian astrakhan. Originally a name given to skins 
with a short curly wool notably the pelts obtained from young lambs 
from Astrakhan, European Russia. At present astrakhan cloth is a 
woolen or silk material with a long and closely curled pile, in imitation 
of the fur above mentioned, and is used for ladies' cloaks, dress trim- 
ming and men's clothing. 

AXMINSTER CARPET. [See Carpet.] 



BAIZE IS 

B 

BAIZE — (Spanish plural for Bay.) In the 17th century- this was a 
kind of fine soft woolen material, having- a long - nap, sometimes friezed 
and sometimes not, according to the uses it was intended for. At present 
it is a coarser material than formerly, being- dyed in plain colors, usually 
red or green, and used for linings, table covers, etc. 

BALBRIGGAN owes its name to the town of Balbriggan, county Cork, 
Ireland, near Dublin, where first was knitted hosiery and underwear of 
unbleached cotton yarn. At present it is the name applied to a class of 
medium heavy cotton underwear made from unbleached cotton, which 
distinguishes it from Lisle thread q. v. and Gauze q. v. 

BALMORAL is the term applied to a variety of ladies' cheap cotton 
skirts, distinguished by not being furnished with a waist-band or hem- 
med at the bottom. They were originally a woolen pettitoat, dyed red, 
with fancy black stripes, and intended to be displayed below the skirt 
of the dress, which was looped up. These were supposed to have been 
worn first by the daug-hters of Queen Victoria, during the visits to their 
royal residence at Balmoral, Scotland. 

BANDANNA handkerchiefs are of Indian origin, thoug-h now exten- 
sively made and used in the United States. The cloth is first dyed solid 
Turkey Red q. v. and, the white pattern then made by discharging- the 
red with bleaching liquor in a powerful press. The pattern to be dis- 
charged is cut out on two metal plates, of the full size of the handker- 
chief. A dozen or more handkerchiefs are laid in between these plates 
and then the pressure applied; the liquor is run in on the uppermost 
plate, which is grooved on the upper side to receive it. The pressure 
on the cloth to make clean work (by preventing" the spreading of the li- 
quor) is enormous, often exceeding 500 and 600 tons. The bleaching- 
liquor destroys the red color in all those parts where the plates allow it 
to circulate, thus producing- the figure. Bandannas are made in sizes 
from 12 to 24 inches square. 

BAREGE VEILING owes its name to Bareges, France, where 
first was manufactured a thin g-auze-like silk fabric used for ladies' veils. 
At present Barege Veiling has a fine silk warp and a "woolen" weft, 30 
inches wide. It is an imported fabric, and comes in several qualities, 
put up in a certain number of "aulnes" to the bolt. An aulne in our 
meausure is one yard and a fourth. 

BASTARD CLOTH. — A cloth presumably imitating a more expensive 
material. 

BATISTE. — So called from its inventor, M. Baptiste, linen weaver of 



16 BATISTE 

Cambria, France. Originally a fine linen cloth made in three different 
thicknesses. At present the batiste of commerce is a cheap cotton fabric 
closely resembling- figured lawn, the only difference being that batiste is 
^lightly heavier and wider, though in both materials the patterns are 
printed on in the same manner. 

BAUDEKIN. Arich embroidered or brocaded silk fabric, woven orig- 
inally with a warp of gold thread. [See Textiles.] In the 17th cen- 
tury called Cloth of Baudekin. Later the name was applied to any rich 
brocade, and even to shot silk. It is not found in use after the lbth 
century. 

BEADS. — Small perforated ornaments, usually of a round shape, worn 
by women in necklaces, bracelets and head-dresses; and also used for 
ornamenting slippers, purses, watch-guards, and a variety of fancy 
articles. Beads are made of gold, diamond, amber, pearl, coral, garnet, 
crystal, steel, paste, wood etc.; but the greatest quantity are of glass 
manufacture. Glass beads were manufactured by the Phoenicians more 
than 3000 years ago. At present they form a favorite article of traffic 
with all savage tribes and nations, often being the only medium of ex- 
change in bartering with them. Glass beads are commonly manufac- 
tured over the blow pipe, the glass which has been previously drawn 
out into a slender tube, being when sufficiently heated, blown into a 
bulb of the size required for the bead. Sometimes glass tubes having 
been cut into uniform pieces the size of bead desired, the pieces are 
thrown into a mixture of wood ashes and fine sand, and stirred about 
until their cavities are filled; they are then transferred to a heated iron 
pan and agitated until they assume a smooth rounded form. Taken out 
and their bodies cleared and cleaned, they form glass beads. In com- 
merce known as the hollow, the tube and the bugle. The hollow are 
the most expensive kind, the price varying from 25 cents to $2.50 per 
bunch of twelve strands. Common black beads are sold from. 10 to 25 
cents per pound. 

BEAVER CLOTH is a heavy woolen cloth woven similar to doeskin, 
both plain and twilled, with the wrong side finished with a soft thick 
nap; much in demand some years ago for overcoats. At present this 
term is also applied to a smooth-faced, medium heavy wool material, 
napped inside, used as ladies' cloaking. 

BEAVER HAT. —The modern stiff silk hat was commonly called a 
"beaver," until a few years after the civil war. 

BEAYERTEEN. -A strong, napped cotton fabric for men's wear, 
made after the manner of a smooth fustian, shorn after being dyed. 

BEARING CLOTH.— A cloth with which a child is covered when car- 
ried to church to be baptised, often richly embroidered; also called a 



BENG ALINE 17 

christening - robe. 

BENGALINE is a dress fabric woven exactly like a Faille silk, except 
that a fine "worsted" thread is substituted for the weft. This weft 
(which forms the cords) is entirely covered and concealed by the fine 
silk warp threads, so that the wool is not exposed on either surface. 

; BENGAL STRIPES are wide striped ginghams, used for skirting, 
so called from having been originally brought from Bengal, but now 
manufactured exclusively in this country. 

BIB. — From Latin biber'e, to drink, whence also the words imbibe, bib- 
ulous, etc. A cloth worn by children to keep the front of the dress clean 
while eating; usually made of honeycombed cotton canvas, lawn, lace 
and the like. 

BIRDSEYE LINEN. — A honey-comb or diamond-figured linen fabric, 
used for towels and fancy work. 

BLANKET. — This is said to be a corruption of the French Blanchet. 
It is also claimed that the name is derived from an English manufac- 
turer, Thomas Blanquett, who in 1340 was the owner of a large woolen 
mill near London. A woolen cover, soft and loosely woven, spread com- 
monly over the cotton sheets for the procurement of warmth. Blankets 
valued at 30 cents or less per pound are subject to a duty of 17 cents per 
pound and 30 per cent; valued at 40 cents or less per pound the tariff is 
22 cents per pound and 35 per cent; valued at 50 cents or less per pound, 
33 cents per pound and 35 per cent. The cost of the labor to weave a 
5-pound blanket is estimated to be 70 cents. 

BLEACHING OF WOOL and 'animal fibres generally is a simpler and 
less important operation than the whitening of vegetable fibres. Wool, 
when sheared from the sheep, is covered with a varnish or greasy matter, 
technically called the "yolk" which it is the object of the bleacher to 
remove. This "yolk" in consequence of its soapy nature, is soluable in 
water, so that merely washing the wool in pure water would remove the 
greater portion of it, but it is found more advantageous to remove it by 
the process termed "scouring." Scouring is performed by means of an 
ammonia lye, prepared with soft water mixed with stale purified urine, 
which is found to contain a per cent of ammonia, upon which its action 
probably depends. The mixture is heated with steam to a temperature 
at which the hand of a workman can be held. In this bath the wool is 
left from one to two hours, according to the quantity of greasy matter it 
contains. It must now be thoroughly rinsed by exposing it to a stream 
of clear water, with constant stirring, till the last water passes off per- 
fectly clean. Wool properly scoured is distinguished by its filaments 
being smooth, long slender white and perfectly free from foreign sub- 
stances, not having lost their natural tenacity. If the scouring be prop- 



18 BLEACHING 

erlv clone there is no need of further washing- in soaps, or otherwise, till 
the wool is subjected to the process called "sulphuring-;" and in point of 
fact it very rarely passes through any other process. Some manufac- 
turers, however, recommend for the finer wools where a very delicate 
white is wanted, that they should be passed through two or more baths 
of soap and water. No caustic alkaline lyes can be employed, as they 
destroy and dissolve the wool altogether, nothing - remaining but a kind 
of gummy soap. 

The bleaching of woolen goods bv "sulphuring" is applied to yarns 
and woolen goods only when the\ arc intended to be finished white or 
light bright colors. The method of "sulphuring" is to expose the goods 
in a closed room to the vapor of burning sulphur. The goods are hung 
on poles and when the room is full, a quantity of sulphur placed in very 
flat and broad dishes is allowed to burn away gradually on the floor of 
the room, every aperture by which the vapor can escape being closed 
tight, so that it may permeate into every crevice of the goods. After 
exposure to this sulphurous acid vapor from six to twenty-four hours the 
goods are removed; and if to be finished a clear white, they are run 
through a bath containing some indigo carmine, which increases the 
brilliancy of the white. When they are to be d}*ed, they are treated with 
dilute sulphuric acid, thoroughly washed and dried. 

The bleaching of wool is not so complete as the bleaching of cotton or 
linen, by chlorine. In the case of cottons and linens the color is com- 
pletely destroyed, but in wool the sulphur merely combines with the col- 
oring matter of the fibre, and produces a colorless compound, from which 
the original color can again be revived, either by soaking the goods in a 
dilute acid or a dilute alkali, such as soda. Hence it is that new woolen 
cloth or garments, such as flannel, blankets and underclothing, though 
almost colorless when bought, yet after being washed several times, 
return to their natural yellow; for the washing soda used, or the soap 
which contains potash or soda, destroys the colorless compound produced 
by the sulphuring process and revives again the original color. 

BLOOMERS. — A peculiar and ridiculous costume for women introduced 
and advocated in 1850 by a Mrs. Bloomer, of New York, the distinctive 
features of which were a short skirt extending to the knees, and loose 
baggy trousers buttoned around the ankles. 

1!< >A. — (Latin Boa —A water serpent. ) A long serpent-like piece of 
fur, worn around the neck b}~ ladies. Also a round fur tippet. Usually 
accompanies a muff to complete a set of furs. 

B< >BBTNEJT. A net consists of a fabric of thread, twine or cord, the 
intersections of which are so knotted or twisted as to form meshes or 
interspaces of fixed dimensions; the meshes being usually lozenges of a 
uniform size. The art of netting is intimately related to weaving, 



BOBBINET 19 

knitting- and machine-lace making-, from all of which, however, it is 
distinguished by the regular knotting or twisting of the different threads 
Bobbinet, which is the foundation of all machine-made lace, is made by 
the intertwisting- of contiguous threads of fine cotton or silk. 

Prior to the year 1800, laces of every description were made by hand 
Among the most beautiful of these hand-wrought laces at this time was 
a variety called "Brussels," which was distinguished by a portion of the 
threads being "twisted at regular intervals so as to form an open spot 
in order to relieve the sameness of the tissue." The first attempt at the 
manufacture of lace by machinery was in imitation of this Brussels lace 
probably on account of the great popularity of, and demand for, this 
variety. The first step was to make this open-work, ( or bobbinet) upon 
which to ground the pattern. In England several efforts were made 
from 1758 to 1809, but the first really successful machine for bobbinet 
(so named from the threads crossing the warps being supplied from 
bobbins) was that of John Heathcoat, invented in 1809, and suggested 
by the machinery he had seen employed in making fishing nets." The 
principle of the invention was in the use of fixed parallel warp thread^ 
around which the bobbin threads were worked as the filling of a fabric' 
one set going obliquely from right to left, and the second set obliquely 
across from left to right. In the machine the warp threads to the num- 
ber of 700 to 1200 in a yard of width, are stretched from a roller, which 
extends the whole length of the thread beam, and the weft threads are 
wound each upon a bobbin, formed of two thin brass discs, riveted to- 
gether, leaving a narrow space between them for the thread to pass out 
Each bobbin holds about 100 yards of thread, and there are sometimes 
as many as 1200 of them to a machine. About 30000 meshes per minute 
can be made with improved machines. The pieces of bobbinet measure 
from 30 to 40 yards each; the width is variable, being very narrow in 
Wash Blond, and wider in Brussels and Darn Net. 

BOLT.— Any quantity of rolled or wrapped fabric. 

BOLTING CLOTH.-A cloth of linen or silk used in mills for boltin- 
or sifting meal or flour. Also a fine wide linen fabric used by ladies for 
fancy-work. The finest and most expensive variety of silk fabric made 
is bolting cloth for the miller's use, woven almost altogether in Switzer- 
land. There is no import duty on this, provided it is not used for, or 
suitable, for wearing apparel. 

BOMBAST.— Cotton or other stuff of soft loose texture, used to stuff 
garments; padding. 

BOMBAZINE.— From Bombycina, a cloth of the Romans in the 6th 
century. A light twilled dress fabric, of which the warp is silk and the 
filling worsted, q. v. giving it a sheeny appearance; formerly black, but 
now made in various colors. One of the oldest fabrics known. 



20 BOOK 

BOOKBINDERS CL< >TH. A stifflysized and glazed variety of cotton 
cloth, usually colored, and often decoratively embossed, much used for 
the cheap binding of books in place of leather. 

BOOK-FOLD. —A piece of muslin or linen containing 24 yards. 

BOOK MUSLIN. — A kind of thin starchy muslin, usually used for 
the covering of library books or lining of dresses; very similar to paper 
cambric. 

BOUCLE (bu-clay) is a styleof weaving- in which a rough and knotted 
surface is produced. These bunches or knots are formed in the weft 
threads prior to weaving, and appear at short intervals over the surface 
of the fabric. This weave is g-enerally confined to woolen dress goods 
and cloaking-. 

BROADCLOTH.— A tine "woolen" q. v. cloth, commonly black, with a 
glossy finished surface, principally used in making- men's garments, so 
called from its breadth, which is usually 60 inches. Broadcloth is woven 
of the finest grade of felting- wool, q. v. but when taken from the loom 
it does not present that fine and polished appearance which is the dis- 
tinctive feature of broadcloth as seen in the shops of tailors. In the 
loom it is roug-h and dull colored, with the threads which compose it 
plainly showing. To obtain the "finish" it is put throug-h the fulling 
and napping processes (explained fully under their proper .heads) which 
completely conceals the warp and weft; then it is sheared to produce an 
even and smooth surface, and wetted, steamed, ironed and pressed many 
times to make the polished surface. 

BROCADE. — A fabric woven with a pattern of raised figures or foliage; 
originally a silk stuff varieg-ated with gold and silver, or raised and en- 
riched with flowers, foliage and other ornaments; brocade is applied to 
either cotton or woolen fabrics, wrought and enriched in a like manner. 
First manufactured in England in the 13th century. 

BROCADED. — This term is used to describe a fabric on which a. figure 
of any kind is formed by the threads of the war]) or filling- being- raised 
in such order as to produce the pattern required. The word has much 
the same application to silk and wool textures that "damasked" has to 
linen textures, or to worsted stuffs when used for upholstery purposes. 

BR( )CATFLL. A coarse brocade or figured fabric, commonly made of 
silk and cotton, or sometimes of cotton only; used chiefly for tapestry, 
linings tor carriages and covering for furniture. 

BROCHE. -— (Bro-sha) French forbroach, to sew or stitch. Brocheprop- 
erly means sewed or stitched, or ornamented in weaving- with threads 
which form a pattern on the surface in imitation of stitching; has a 
meaning similar to brocaded when applied to woven fabrics: as a broche 



BROCHE 21 

shawl, a broche ribbon. The Broche shawl, made in imitation of the 
genuine Cashmere q. v. is distinguished by its "cone" pattern, or round 
scroll work. They were first made at Paisley, Scotland, and were of a 
peculiar bluish color, and known to the trade as Paisley shawls. At 
present they are made in France and red is the predominating - color, 
called either Broche or Paisley. 

BREECHES. — A bifurcated garment formerly worn to cover but the 
hips and thighs; sometimes, but less properly, used in the sense of 
trousers or pantaloons. The word is derived from the old English breech, 
which meant the lower part of the body behind, or the hinder part of 
anything. 

BRUSH HAT. — The old fashioned Brush hats were made from beaver 
fur, first made into a felt cloth and then napped. The nap was produced 
in the process of sizing by being constantly "brushed" with a hand 
brush, — hence the name. The best qualities usually sold for $15. 

BUCKLE. — A metal appliance used for fastening things together. 
They were first generally Worn in the reign of Charles II of England, 
The}' were then made of very expensive materials, often being set with 
diamonds and other precious stones, and worn as ornaments. At the 
present time are cheaply made and used mainly for ordinary clothes fas- 
tenings. 

BUCKRAM. — A coarse linen fabric stiffened with glue, used in gar- 
ments to keep them in the shape intended, and for wrapping fine cloths 
and other merchandise. It was originally a very different material to 
that now known by the name. It the 13th century it is described as a 
fine thin linen cloth, ranking with the richest silk. 

BUGLE. — A shiny, elongated glass bead, usually black, used for dec- 
orating female apparel. Bugle trimming consists of these glass orna- 
ments attached to a silk or gimp foundation; similar to Passamenterie. 

BUNTING is a thin, loosely-woven, single width wool dress goods, 
woven both plain and laced; used originally in the manufacture of flags 
and signals of ships, but at present found in all colors and qualities and 
used for ladies dresses. Distinguished from Nun's Veiling by being 
but single width, of coarser and more open texture and made of worsted. 
The tariff on Bunting is 12 cents per square yard and 50 per cent, pro- 
viding- it weighs less than 4 ounces per square yard; if it weighs over 
this, 44 cents per pound and 50 per cent. 

BURLAPS. — A coarse heavy material made of jute, flax, hemp or 
manilla, and used for wrappings and upholstery; outside coffee bags arc 
made of burlaps. The tariff is 15 8 cents per pound. 

BURL.— To pick the burrs, or burls, from the surface of woolen cloths. 



22 BUSTLE 

BUSTLE is derived from busk, which in 1586 was a "flexible strip of 
whalebone or other stiffened material used by fleshy women to keep their 
stomachers down, and to stiffen their stays;" also a "quilted or plaited 
thing- to keep the body straight." Bustles have been worn in England 
of various shapes and dimensions, at different periods since 1841. At 
present they consist of a sort of pad or wire spring, worn by ladies for 
the purpose of expanding the skirts behind. 

BUSKIN is derived from "boar-skin," of which it was at first made. 
A half-boot or shoe, strapped or laced to the ankle and the lower part 
of the leg, worn by the ancients. At present a low-laced, low-heeled 
•>hoe worn by women. 

BUTCHER'S LINEN.— A coarse and heavy bleached linen material, 
vised principally as a backing for shirt bosoms. 

BUTTER CLOTH. — A thin and open, unsized muslin, used by dairy- 
men to wrap their rolls of butter; similar to Cheese Cloth q. v. 

BUTTON MOLD. — A disc of bone or wood which is made into buttons 
by covering it with silk or other kind of cloth. 

BUTTONS. — French bouton, from bout, end, extremity, bud. A catch 
of various forms and materials, used to fasten together the different 
parts of dress. The raw materials of which buttons are made are horn, 
bone, agate, india-rubber, mother-of-pearl, various woods and vegetable 
ivory; and for covering buttons there is used lasting, brocade, twist, 
velvet, silk and mohair. Button manufacture did not assume any special 
form until the 14th century, when buttons of gold and ivory were used 
as ornaments on the dress of both sexes. At the commencement of the 
17th century the button trade had greatly increased in England and 
large quantities of bone, steel and wooden buttons were shipped to this 
country. The first manufactured in the United States was in 1826, by 
Samuel Williston. While he was dragging along as a country store 
keeper at Easthampton, Massachusetts, his wife bethought her that she 
could cover by hand the w r ooden buttons of that time, and thus earn an 
honest penny. From this the couple advanced in their ambition until 
they had perfected machinery for covering buttons, the first employed 
in this country. From this sprang an immense factor}', and then others, 
until Samuel Williston made half the buttons of the world. His facto- 
ries are still running at Leeds and Easthampton, Mass., coining wealth 
for the proprietors. Metal buttons are made of tin and also of brass 
containing a small amount of zinc. This is furnished to the button- 
maker in strips, out of which the discs are cut by a machine. This pro- 
is so rapid that one workman can prepare 12 gross in an hour. 

Vegetable Ivory buttons are made in large quantities at Leeds Mass., 
at New York and Newark. The Vegetable Ivory nuts come from 



BUTTONS 23 

South America, and. are about the size of an ordinary potato. These 
nuts grow on trees and before maturity are soft and full of milk; but if 
allowed to hang - upon the trees gradually condense and grow as hard as 
flint. These are shipped to this country and kiln-dried, sawed into 
slabs of the proper thickness, from which the buttons are cut by a lathe, 
the holes being drilled in by a power lathe. The material can be dyed 
any desired color with as much facility as cloth, and will receive a high 
polish by friction. Horn, bone and ivory buttons are made in a similar 
manner. Buttons made of india-rubber q. v. composition ahuays have 
the name of the maker on the under side. The process is very simple, 
being performed by means of a die, under considerable pressure. 

Pearl buttons are made of pearl shells, the great bulk of which come 
from the Malay Arehipelag-o. Quite a larg-e portion of these shells are 
shipped to San Francisco, and thence to England via. New York. But 
it is quite safe to say that the entire product eventually iinds its way to 
England by one route or another, as London is the pearl market of the 
world, where the shells are sold at auction once a week, every Tuesday. 
Here the manufacturers of Europe buy their raw material and ship it to 
their factories, where it is "worked." There is no fixed value to pearl 
stock, the price fluctuating daity according to supply and demand. The 
bulk of pearl shirt buttons are made at Birmingham and London, while 
pearl dress buttons are for the most part made at Vienna, Austria. 
There are three grades of pearl dress buttons known to commere: 

1st. The Macassar, which is a pure white, of which "^ super," 
"super" and "extra super" buttons are made. 

2d. The Mussell, of which are manufactured the "half-fine" grades. 

3d. The Manilla, which produces the lowest grade goods. 

The Macassar is a pure clear shell; the Mussell has a white surface 
with a yellowish or blackish back; while the Manilla is a dirty yellow- 
ish color throughout. 

There are two systems used for the measurement of buttons, the En- 
glish and the French. English measurement runs 14, 16, 18, 20 "lines" 
etc, while the French runs 4, 4^4, 5, $% "lines" etc. An English "line" 
is one -fortieth of an inch, or 40 lines to an inch; the French line may 
be expressed thus: .08887 of an inch. The French line measurement is 
said to be obsolete, } r et it is every day in practical use. To show in 
what relation the respective systems stand to each other, seethe following": 

English measure -.18 20 22 24 26 28 etc. . 

French " 5 5 l / 2 6 6^ 7 7*4 

Agate buttons used to be manufactured in England exclusive^, but 
they have lost the industry. - It came about in this way: A smart 
Frenchman^ F. Bapterosses by name, went to England and hired to the 
Agate button-makers as a common workman, thoroughly studied the 
business and g-ot possession of the secrets. He then returned to France, 



24 BUTTONS 

where with the aid of the French government he constructed a large 
plant and was enabled to produce agates at half the cost of the Engiish 
ui „.(ls. which of cmirsc ruined the English industry. This man accu- 
mulated an immense fortune, and was made a Knight of the Legion of 
Honor by his Government in recognition of his services to mankind — 
especially the French part of it. He visited the Centennial in this 
country in 1 S7<>. Agates are made of a mineral substance known as 
Feldspar, found in the roofs of caverns at Briare, France. The raw 
material is taken to the factory and ground into paste, after which it 
is molded into buttons and baked; they are then sewed on the cards by 
machinery. On all of Bapterosses' goods will be found the letters "F. B." 
printed on the back of each card. These are the Frenchman's initials. 
They are the best goods made. 

There is only one other Agate factory in the world and that is in 
Germany, but its product is not nearly so good, the Germans being- un- 
able to get the material that is perfectly clear and white. They are 
branded on the back of each card "R. C." and on inspection it will be 
noticed that they are not so well burned as the "F. B." goods. These 
specks seem to be a matter they cannot overcome in Germany. 

The tariff on Agate buttons is 25 per cent ad valorem; on Pearl and 
Shell buttons 21-2 cents per line per gross and 25 per cent ad valorem; 
on Ivory, Vegetable Ivory, Bone or Horn buttons 50 per cent ad valorem. 

C 

CALENDER. — A machine consisting of two or more steel cylinders 
revolving ver)' nearly in contact, between which is passed a woven 
fabric, for "finishing" 1 by means of great pressure, often aided by steam 
heat communicated from the interior of the cylinders. The object of 
calendering- cloth is to give it a perfectly smooth, even and equal surface 
and sometimes to produce a glaze, as in jaconets, silesia, satteens etc. 
[See Henrietta, Calico, Cotton.] 

CALFSKIN.— The best Calfskin in the world is tanned in France, 
with the liquor extracted from the bark of the Evergreen oak, indigenous 
to that country. One single tannery in France has been in existence 
for over one hundred years and at present employs 12000 workmen, and 
ships its Calfskin to every continent and country on the globe, even to 
every city in the United States where there is a wholesale leather house 
or a boot and shoe factory. One of the reasons of the superior quality 
of this French Calfskin is accounted for by the fact that fully <>0 per 
cent of the raw hides which this tannery receives come from England, 
Ireland. Italy and other populous European countries, where the calves 



CALICO 25 

are stall fed. It is a well known fact among - tanners that range, or grass 
fed animals produce the poorest and most inferior hides for making- fine 
leather. The tariff on French Calfskin is 20 per cent ad valorem. [See 
Leather.] 

CALICO. — Authorities agree in ascribing the name of this material 
to the great commercial city of Calicut, India. Sometimes called chintz; 
also print, from "printed calico." The term calico is applied to cotton 
upon which- colored patterns are impressed with the use of dyes. The 
effect produced by the printing process is like that of the colored designs 
brought out by the loom, but with much greater economy of time and 
labor. The origin of this art, like that of dying, is traced back to very 
remote antiquity, and in some form or other appears to have been 
practiced bj' nations of little skill in other respects. The aborigines of 
America stain their garments in different colors, which is a rude method 
of calico printing; while the natives of Mexico, at the time of its con- 
quest by Cortes, produced garments of cotton adorned with figures in 
black, blue, red, yellow and green colors. In the different countries of 
India the art is practiced with various degrees of skill. From this latter 
country the method was introduced at an early period into Europe, but 
it did not become of much importance until the 17th century. In 1676 
the manufacture of calico in England was greatly restricted b}^ the op- 
position of silk and woolen weavers, and the new industry made slow 
progress. In 1720 the wearing of printed calico was prohibited by an 
act of Parliament under a penalty of $25 for each offence on the part of 
wearer, and $10 on that of the seller. In 1730 it was allowed to be 
printed provided the warp was of linen and the weft of cotton, but even 
then it was subject to an onerous tax of 12 cents per square yard — so 
great was the influence brought to bear on law-makers by the silk and 
woolen weavers. From England calico printing spread into Germany, 
France and Switzerland, and has gradually extended itself until now 
nearly every country on the globe prints its own cotton goods. The art 
has been perfected by the highest chemical talent, as well as by the in- 
genuity and taste of the artist. Artists, or pattern designers are em- 
ployed whose constant occupation is to furnish new patterns, from 
which the printer selects those he judges likely to be the most popular. 
The French artists are admitted to produce finer designs than those of 
other nations. 

There are two preparatory operations to which the raw, or "gre}" 
calico cloth is submitted before it is printed, — bleaching and calendering. 
Bleaching was formerly effected by pouring an alkali solution over 
the goods and steeping them for about a week, and after washing, 
steeping them for another week in buttermilk; after this they were 
thoroug-hly washed and exposed to the action of the sunlight for^several 



26 CALICO 

months. Almost a whole summer was required for the operation, which 
now requires but two days. This rude and simple process was practiced 
from the time of the early Egyptians down to the 18th century, there 
being - scarcely any progress or improvement in the art for thousands of 
years. The bleaching- of calico cloth now consists in boiling the cloth 
in a hot alkaline solution, then in lime water, and finally steeping it in 
a dilute solution of the chloride of lime, which is called the "chemieking'' 
process. The liquor consists for every pound of cloth, of half a pound 
of chloride of lime and three gallons of water. The washings and 
boilings are repeated several times, altogether they amount to IS in 
number, and the cost is five-sixths of a cent per yard for full bleaching. 
The bleaching of common print cloth is divided into two branches: 1st, 
print bleaching, in the case of which the goods are bleached as a pre- 
liminary to the process of printing; and 2d, white bleaching, which 
applies to goods to be finished "white''' or unprinted, or merely lined or 
dotted. In white bleaching it is only necessary to satisfy the eye, but 
in print bleaching the material must be chemically pure, otherwise the 
colors in the subsequent printing process would be dull and blotchy, 
and would not combine evenly or perfectl}-. The natural coloring matter 
found in cotton is not essential to its texture, and fortunately can be 
removed by these chemical agents without injury to the structure of the 
rest of the fibre. "Gre} r " calico (as received from the loom) undergoes 
the process of singeing q. v. before it is bleached, in order to remove 
the downy nap and short threads from the surface of the cloth, which 
would interfere with the appearance of finished white goods, and with 
the uniformity and sharpness of patterns in the case of prints. The 
singeing process gives the cloth a yellow, dirty color which the bleach- 
ing also removes. 

The next stage is starching, the object of which is to fill up the spaces 
between the threads in order that the pattern ma}- be imprinted plainer. 
What ought to be, and by reputable bleachers really is used, is pure 
starch, either of corn or potatoes, made up into a stiff mucilage and 
blued with indigo. The cloth passes over a stretching- rail into a long 
trough of this starch, in which a roller is mounted. As it comes out of 
the starch it is caught between a pair of rollers and the superfluous 
starch squeezed out and thrown back into the trough, the cloth passing 
on to the drying machine. Many bleachers use a great deal more starch 
or "sizing" than is necessary, in order to give light cloth an appear- 
ance of weig-ht and bulk. A great variety of mixtures, both cheap and 
nasty, are used in place of starch, but naturally as little information as 
as possible on this point is allowed to leak out to the public. As much 
as from 50 to 90 per cent of size has got to be used, the greater part of 
it being china clay, with a certain proportion of magnesium to keep the 



CALICO 27 

material damp and supple. The impurity is easily detected by washing 
the cloth and ascertaining- the loss of weight before and after the oper- 
ation. Cheap calicoes are also largely sized with lime. 

Calendering is the operation by which the surface of the cloth is 
rendered smooth and even by the removal of all wrinkles, the flattening 
down of all knots and other imperfections, and the spreading of the 
threads so as to give them a flattened form, and the texture an appear- 
ance of closeness and streng-th. The polish often seen on calico, called 
glazing or satine, is produced by the friction they receive in this process. 
It is usually done by passing- the fabric between cylinders pressed to- 
gether with great force; hence the origin of the term, which is a cor- 
ruption of cylindering. 

The printing of the pattern on calico cloth was formerly effected by 
the use of wooden blocks, and has been in use from time immemorial. 
The printing- is now almost universally accomplished by means of cyl- 
inder machines. A polished copper cylinder, the width of the cloth to 
be printed, is engraved with a pattern around its entire circumference, 
and from end to end, a different cylinder being required for each color 
or shade in the pattern. The cloth is passed under these and printed 
much after the manner of printing a newspaper. In establishments of 
any considerable extent many thousands of these copper cylinders are 
kept in stock, involving- an enormous outlay of money. 

In this country there are two kinds of calico printers, — those who 
make the goods, print them and sell direct to the jobbers, and those 
who merely print the cloth for jobbers or commission merchants at piece 
price. Gray print cloth may be purchased in market at New York or 
Liverpool by even retail merchants, who in turn can take it to the calico 
printers and hire the patterns put on. Ordinary print cloth, (64x64) 
usually sells for about 2>% cents per yard; and 56x60 cloth at 3 cents; 
the cost of printing the same varies from 1 cent to iy 2 cents per yard. 
One pound of cotton will produce 8^ yards of 64x64 calico. The tariff 
on imported calico is 4% cents per square yard. [See Bandanna, Indi- 
go Blue, Madder, Turkey Red.] 

CAMBRIC. — The town of Cambria, France was long famous for its 
manufactures of fine muslins. Here in 1520 was first made a fine thin 
muslin of pure linen, called Cambric in compliment to the city; this fab- 
ric was much used for the fine ruffs of that period as well as for hand- 
kerchiefs etc. The Scotch were the first people to imitate the linen 
cambric in cotton. This they did by using the best quality of cotton 
and twisting the warp and weft threads verv hard. At present but very 
little of the linen cambric is in use, the fine glossy cotton imitation hav- 
ing superceded it. There is also a somewhat coarser cotton cloth called 
cambric, which is dyed in solid colors and finished soft or with a glaze, 
much used for limners. 



28 CAMELET 

CAMELET.— A tine soft "woolen 1 ' dress fabric, with long straggling 
hairs woven into the body of the texture and protruding- from the surface, 
giving the appearance of real camel's hair fabrics, of which these hairs 
are a characteristic feature. 

CAMEL'S HAIR comes from southern Asiatic Russia and Tartary 
and from Africa; the latter is the finest. Its color is the light brown as 
seen in the goods made of it. It is separated into "tops" — long coarse 
hairs, and "noils"— the short line curly ones — by combing, precisely as 
mohair, alpaca and other combing wools are treated. The "tops" are 
used for coarse cloths. The staple of the "noils" is about one inch long 
and the feeling'- is extremely soft and silky. It is the "noils" only that 
is used in underwear, hosiery, dress fabrics, shawls etc. Camel's hair is 
often mixed with wool or cotton to make various grades of goods. A 
good quality of raw Camel's hair is worth 50 cts per pound. It need not 
appear strange that Camel's hair should become an article of common use 
in the. U. S. The Camel is numerous over an enormous area of the earth; 
he is a large animal and his" coat is heavy. The globe is being constantly 
ransacked for new and superior materials for clothing mankind, and for 
decorating him and his home. At first Camel's hair was expensive but 
as the advantages possessed b}- this material came to be appreciated the 
demand was proportionately increased. A steady demand by the man- 
ufacturers for the raw material lead to a larger production and supph'; 
these causes have lowered the price until now Camel's hair fabrics can be 
bought at the same prices that are paid for tine wool fabrics. 

CAMEL'S HAIR SHAWLS.— The high price of these shawls is due, 
not to the cost of the raw materials, but to the fact that each one is a 
splendid work of art that is slowly and patiently wrought and sold as 
great pictures are sold, for a price befitting their artistic worth. They 
are known in the United States as Cashmere shawls, and are made of 
the line hair of the Cashmere goat. [See Cashmere Shawls.] 

CANT( )N FLANNEL received its name from Canton China, on account 
of its having first been imported from that city. The nap is produced by 
Teaslin<r q. v. These teasles are cultivated in Virginia and Maryland 
and fetch high prices, as several hundred are required upon each bolt of 
canton flannel. Attempts have been made to supersede the vegetable 
teasle with wire brushes or metal teasle cards, but they do but rudely 
imitate the action of the natural teasle, in which each head is composed 
of a great number of points, at the end of which is a tine hook, the part 
so valuable for raising the nap. These hooks are strong enough to over- 
come a slight impediment, but are sufficiently yielding to give way and 
break when thev become fixed in a knot or other obstacle which they can 
not disentangle. The metal cards, on the contrary, instead of yielding 



CANTON FLANNEL 29 

tear out the threads, and thus injure the surface of the cloth. The most 
that can be done to meet the requirements of the manufacturer is to fix 
the heads of teasles, first being- divided into halves and quarters, into a 
rotary cylinder, over which the cloth is guided, until the required nap is 
raised. [See Teasling.] 

CANVAS owes its name to cannabis, (Latin for hemp) and originally 
meant any coarse texture woven of hempen thread. Evolution has cor- 
rupted the word into plain canvas. At present it is known as a coarse 
unbleached cotton or linen cloth, never twilled, but always woven plain, 
used for tailoring purposes, tents, sails, etc. Honeycomb, Java, Penelope, 
Aida, Railroad and Congress are varieties of canvas woven in little 
squares or meshes, used for working fancy toilet articles with the needle. 
Also a carefully woven linen fabric used as a surface for oil paintings. 
It is prepared by stretching it on long frames and covering it with one 
or two coats of neutral colored paint. Four kinds are known to the 
trade: Single Prime, Smooth, Roman and Twilled. 

CAPOTE. — A loose roomy cloak for ladies, properly with a cape and 
hood, made of light cloth and covering the person completel}', and reach- 
ing nearly to the ground. 

CARDIGAN JACKET.— A coarse heavy rib-knitted Jacket for men's 
wear. Owes its name to first being- made in the town of Cardigan, Car- 
digan Count}-, England, 240 miles north-west of London. 

CARPET is the name applied in modern times to a woven or felted 
fabric made generally of wool, which is used for the covering of floors. 
The word is derived from Latin carpeta, woolen cloth, through 
carpere, to pluck wool. 

Carpets and rugs were originally employed by oriental nations for 
sitting or reclining, or devotionally kneeling upon, and when first in- 
troduced into Europe in 1537, they were used as covers for tables and 
couches, or for laying before altars and chairs of state as foot-cloths. 
Carpets manufactured at the present day range themselves under two 
classes. The first, and ancient class, being- such as are made by knot- 
ting into the warp by hand, tuft after tuft, the material of the pattern; 
and the second, consisting of those in which the pattern is woven up in 
the loom. To the first class belong oriental carpets and rugs generally 
(Turkish, Snryrna, Persian, etc.,) as well as such as are woven else- 
where under the above name. Persia is now, as it has been from most 
remote times, the recognized source of what is most truly artistic, dura- 
ble and valuable in this manufacture, and after the products of that 
country come those of India and Turkey. 

Persian Carpets. — The carpet weaving of Persia is similar in its pro- 
cess to the Gobelin tapestry manufacture in France. This tapestry, as 



30 CARPET 

is well known, consists of tufts of wool (FY. moquetts) or silk sewed on 
the string's of the warp, by means of small shuttle needles. The Per- 
sian carpet is formed by knotting- into the warp tuft after tuft of woolen 
yarn, over each row of which a weft shot is passed, the particular pat- 
tern being produced by different colored threads, hand-wrought upon 
the warp. In Persia there are entire tribes and families whose only oc- 
cupation is carpet and rug weaving. These dispose of their productions 
to the native merchants, who ship them either to Smyrna or Constanti- 
nople, where they meet with English and American purchasers. 

Turkish Carpets are made after the same manner as those of Persia. 
In no part of Turkey does a large manufactory exist, the carpets being 
the work of households and families. These carpets are woven in one 
piece, in different sizes to fit small rooms, and there is this notable pe- 
culiarity in their manufacture, that the same pattern is never again ex- 
actly reproduced; no two Turkish carpets being- quite alike. The col- 
ors are rich and harmonious, red or green being the usual groundcolors, 
combined with blues, blacks and yellows, but very rarely is any white 
permitted to appear. The design is usually made up of a large central 
diamond pattern, with smaller figures filling up the corners and sides, 
the whole square carpet being surrounded b}' a border of lines of differ- 
ent colors. 

India Carpets are made after the same plan as the foregoing. The 
weaving is carried on entirely by natives, who combine this as a farm 
industry together with agricultural labor according- to the season. The 
prevailing color is a deep full red, broken with leaves, etc., of an orange 
hue, and interspersed with soft-toned blues and greens. 

The characteristic carpet weaving of the United States is entirely the 
product of machine, or loom work, and of such there are several distinct 
varieties. Of these the first is the carpet made of rags. 

Rag Carpets were first woven during the early settlement of this 
country. But little can be learned regarding the origin of this import- 
ant industry. Until a few years ago no large manufactory for the 
w-eaving of rag carpets existed in the United States, the carpets usually 
being woven by households in rural communities. Several years ago 
the writer learning of an old lad}' residing in Indiana, who had been 
engaged in the manufacture of these carpets for the market for over 
forty years, made a trip thither in order to find out particulars of the 
process. On being sought out and the object of the errand made known 
to her, she willingly gave the needed information in detail, which, per- 
haps, can not be better told than in her own language: "Well," said 
the aged weaver, " we hev seeing childern in our fambly, and when we 
trit more ole clo'es a layin' round then we kin take keer uv, I sets the 

o 

o-;ils to cuttin' 'em up into carpet rags. It don't make enny difference 



CARPET 31 

what kind uv rag's they be, whether wool or cotton, or black or blue or 
green, fer they are all dyed before wove up ennyhow. Kf I hain't got 
enough rags to make my carpet I kin always buy enough uv some neigh- 
bor at 5 cents a pound to finish out with. The gals cuts the rag-s up 
into strips half an inch wide and sows the ends together, and wind the 
different colors into balls as big as yer head. These balls make the 
fillin' uv the carpet. Then I go to town and git my cotton carpet warp 
— enny color I want it. Its~~done up in five-pound bunches, and sells 
fer about a dollar a bunch. Fer ev'ry three yards uv carpet I want to 
weave I git a pound and a quarter uv warp. I hev my own hand loom, 
and work when I feel like it. When part uv them rag-s are dyed bright 
red and grass green and other purt}" colors, which I do with my own 
hands in wash tubs and kittles, I tell you, young man, your ingraints 
and bodj^ brissells don't stand no show a tall. An' wear! land seikes 
alive, mister, when I tell }*ou trooh* and cand'ly thet I have seen these 
yere very rag carpets wear nigh onto ten years, and tromped on by big 
footed D03-S and gals ever}' day in the year, winter and summer, you'll 
begin to think they'll wear. None uv my mother's fambly, nor me, 
nor none uv my boys and gals that's married off, ever had a boughten 
carpet on their floors in their fife, an' never will, fer they won't stand 
the wear an' tear like unto the rag, and they hain't nigh so purty from 
my pint o' view, and they cost a heap more monej' to top it off with; and 
besides — but shoo! go 'way with them town carpets!" 

Rag carpets are known everywhere in the United States and Canada, 
but are fast being driven out on account of the superior appearance and 
low price of ingrains. Until the year 1874 they were exclusively made 
on hand looms in country villages, but are now also made at the regu- 
lar carpet mills, full yard wide and 130 yards to the roll, whereas when 
Madame makes, or has them made they generally run from 15 to 40 
yards to the piece; in most cases too much for one room, or not enough 
for two, and the retail dealer who buys it has to run the chance of get- 
ting a room to fit the number of yards of carpet. 

Ingrain Carpet consists of either a cotton or woolen warp with a wool 
filling, and is woven in strips one yard wide. It is composed of two 
distinct webs interlaced together at one operation, and is therefore a 
double or two-ply carpet, similar on its two sides. Three-ply carpet is 
composed of three distinct webs, which by interlacing and interchanging 
their threads produce a different pattern on each side, and at the same 
time permitting much greater variety of color with a corresponding in- 
crease of thickness and durability in the texture. 

The best quality of all wool "Extra Super Ingrain" has 1080 warp 
threads to the yard, and thirteen and one-half pairs of filling threads 
to the inch. This is the largest number of filling- threads beaten into 



32 CARPET 

any extra super carpet made on a power loom. In some patterns these 
threads are all double, while in others they are doubled and twisted to 
produce certain effects in color. These filling- threads can be lessened a 
half of a pair at a time until they are reduced to six pairs to the inch, 
which latter grade is about the cheapest quality made under the title of 
all wool ingrain. Thus the quality of ingrain is determined by the 
number of pairs of filling threads per inch, and is known as 6, S, 10, up 
to 13'.' pairs per inch. This is similar to the principle of indicating the 
quality of Brussels and Tapestry by the number of cords or "wires" per 
inch. Twelve-pair Supers (or mediums) contain twelve double woolen 
threads to the inch in the rilling, and 960 warps to the yard. This 
grade is usually preferred by consumers on account of its being all wool 
and holding color better— although as a matter of fact they are not as 
strong as the best Extra Supers with wool rilling and cotton chain. 
(These have the same number of threads as the all wool Extra Super.) 
The avooI filled carpets are made in as low grade as 8-pairs to the inch, 
and could be made with even less than that if the trade demanded them. 

Union Extra Supers were first made of cheap wool and cotton carded 
together for the high colors, and while the riling threads were part 
wool and part cotton, the chain was all cotton. At present competition 
has so cheapened them that they are mostly all cotton. 

All grades below this are made of cotton, or cotton and shoddy wool. 
termed in the trade as 12, 10, 8)4, 7 and 6-pair cottons. 

Some of the fine Ingrain carpets now manufactured are copied after 
the finest patterns of Body and Tapestry Brussels, both in colors and 
designs. In England Ingrain carpets are called Kidderminster, in Scot- 
land the}- are called Scotch carpets. 

Tapestry Carpets are manufactured by a very ingenius process, 
which was invented and patented in Scotland in 1832. The method of 
weaving Tapestry is a combination of weaving and printing, a pile or 
surface imitating and very similar to Brussels being- produced, in 
which any desired number of colors is available, while only a single 
thread is used in making the pile, instead of the five or six which run 
throug-h Brussels texture. In Tapestry weaving the ordinary process 
of printing is reversed — for instead of the fabric being first woven and 
then afterward printed (as in the case of all other printed or stamped 
fabrics) the threads are printed before the warp <»r woof is formed. One 
thread, or two treated as one, sometimes miles in length, is colored by 
steps of half an inch or so faster than a swift runner could make half of 
the distance. When the threads have all been parti-colored in this 
manner, they form the elements, as it were, of the intended pattern of 
the fabric. Singly in the long- thread they exhibit no regular figure or 
pattern, but when woven up in the proper order the pattern comes into 



CARPET 33 

veiw as little by little the thread is looped around the wires. Unlike 
the weaving- on the Brussels principle, in which the colors cannot ex- 
ceed five or six, any desired number or range can be introduced in a 
Tapestry carpet, though the manner of weaving over the wires are ex- 
actly the same. The wrong side of Tapestrv shows nothing but the 
plain linen backing into which the pile is woven, though sometimes 
unscrupulous manufacturers stamp the wrong side in imitation of a 
J3russells' q. v. back for purposes of deception. The color wears off and 
the pile sinks down showing the foundation of the carpet much sooner 
in Tapestry than in Brussells, but as an offset to this the former are 
proportionately cheaper in price. Like Brussells, Moquetts and Wil- 
tons they measure 26 inches in width. The quality is determined by 
the number of "cords" to the inch, termed in the trade 10-wire, 9-wire, 
8-wire Taps, and so on, the less "wires" or cords per inch the cheaper 
and less durable the carpet. 

Brussels, or Body Brussels as it is sometimes called, was first manu- 
factured in Brussels, Belgium, in the year 1710. In the year 1640 they 
were first produced in England. The revocation of the edict of Nantes 
was the cause of many weavers seeking refuge in England. A number 
of these settled at Wilton, near Salisbmw, and there began the pursuit 
of their craft. In the course of time they obtained a royal charter and 
formed themselves into a corporate body for their mutual protection. 
One of the peculiar terms of this charter forbade the weaving of car- 
pets anywhere within ten miles of the little town of Wilton; thus early 
was the "protection of home industries" inaugurated. It is easy to see 
how the carpets came to be known as " Brussels, " without doubt from 
the city where they were first made, and also "Royal Wilton," — Wilton 
from the town and Royal from the charter, for both Brussels and Wil- 
tons were made in those days in the little town near Salisbury. When 
borders began to be more extensivel}' used, they were numbered the 
same as the carpets to which they belonged. Frequently there was a 
stair carpet also which matched the carpet and border and had the 
same stock number. They were distinguished by the terms "Body," 
"Border,' and "Stair." 

Body Brussels is a very superior texture, composed of a linen back 
and a woolen pile, having a rich, corded appearance. The quality is 
determined by the number of these cords per inch, varying from 8 to 16. 
The pile which constitutes the figure or pattern is raised entirety from 
the linen back by inserting a series of wires between the linen founda- 
tion and the superficial yarn, and looping the yarn tightly over each 
wire, which leaves a "row" or "cord." These wires are afterwards 
withdrawn and there is left the smooth looped surface as seen in all 
Brussels carpets. The colors are usually limited to five (called 5-frame 



34 CARPET 

or 6-frame, as the case ma}- be) though in the best quality six colors are 
introduced. These are warp-dyed, and are carried entirely through to 
the back ground. The best qualities are usually 5-frame, that is they 
have five different colors — and whenever a Brussels is made in 6-frame 
it is to get certain effects in colors, and there are usually less threads, to 
the shot than in the 5-frame; but let two salesmen in competing 1 stores 
be showing- Body Brussels to the same customer, and one offer a 6-frame 
carpet for the same price the other offers a 5-frame, it is most likely 
that the latter will lose a point with his customer, who will naturally 
suppose 6 to be better than 5-frame. Each color is a continuous layer of 
thread dyed in the yarn, running from end to end of the web, which 
rises to the surface at close intervals as indicated by the design, and 
then goes out of sight and sinks into the body of the carpet, showing 
the pattern indistinctly on the wrong side. These are the main char- 
acteristics which distinguish Brussels carpets from Tapestries, in that 
each color is composed of a thread of itself, dyed in the yarn, which 
runs the full length of the web, the colors not being used to produce the 
pattern on the surface sinking into the body, causing it to be heavier 
and firmer and showing indistinctly the pattern on the wrong side of the 
carpet. 

Velvets are Tapestries cut after the tapestry proper is made; it is 
passed through a machine and a small knife passes under each row and 
-cuts the loops. The patterns in these have more lustre than the Tap- 
estries, caused by the color being given off from the ends of the wool in- 
stead of from the sides, as in Tapestry. 

Moquettes is French for "tufts of wool.'' , These are woven substan- 
tially after the manner of Brussels, the colors being d}-ed in the yarn; 
differing in this, however, that the pile is looped first into a very coarse 
foundation to which is afterward attached another foundation for the 
purpose of giving the carpet weight and firmness. In Moquette the 
loops instead of being left corded in rows are cut open into an elastic 
velvet pile, leaving a " plush" appearance. To effect this the wires it 
is corded over are not round and smooth, as are the Brussels wires, 
but are flat and furnished with a knife edge at the top, which when 
withdrawn from the yarn cuts the pile. Moquettes might almost be 
termed an American carpet, not being in much demand in other coun- 
tries. The coloring in them is very soft and delicate. The lady of the 
house who first purchases a Moquett carpet is oftentimes filled with fore- 
bodings the first time it is swept, on account of the amount of nap that 
is swept off; this nap is left on the carpet by the machine in shearing- 
it. The pile or nap of a Moquette is much longer and deeper than that 
of a velvet. 

Wilton Carpets are sometimes called Royal Wilton or Wilton Velvet 



CARPET 35 

[see Brussels.] They are made from a high class Body Brussels and 
nearly 3,000 threads of yarn are employed on a web of linen 27 inches 
wide, instead of the pile being- left looped and corded, it is cut by the 
kuife-edged wires, giving - the carpet a plush effect. Wiltons are made 
of extra fine, non-felting wools — which produce a surface extreme- 
ly dense and lustrous. Among the respectable middle " society " 
class of this country it is the abiding hope and never-faltering ambi- 
tion of every good house-wife to some day carpet the front parlor with 
a genuine Wilton. No matter in what community she may reside, the 
possession of a Wilton affords her a prestige in "society" approached on- 
ly and never excelled by solid walnut furniture or a Steinway Grand. She 
knows as far as appearances are concerned it is the creme de la creme of 
all capeting, and fondly imagines that the soft and harmonious blend of 
colors, the rich, lustrious and velvety finish are but the reflex expressions 
of her family's inherited refinement and good taste. This good taste 
ma} r be gratified at from $2.50 to $4.00 per yard, "made andlaid" at any 
regular carpet store. 

Axminster Carpets owe their origin to James Templeton of Scotland,. 
who obtained a patent for his invention in 1840. They were first made 
at Axminster England, hence the name. These carpets are pile fabrics, 
woven into a strong linen or hempen backing, and can be woven of a 
depth equal to any Oriental production. Their manufacture involves two 
distinct weaving operations: First, the preparation of the "chenille" 
strips which form the filling, and second, the carpet weaving proper. 
A design for the carpet that is to be woven is first prepared on paper, and 
accurately drawn in its proper colors. This design is then cut into long 
narrow strips and given to the chenille weaver to guide him as to the 
colors he is to use, and he proceeds in the regular order that they were 
cut with length after length till the whole pattern is woven up. This 
first web is cut into shreds or strips along its whole length, according 
to the number of chenilles it contains, and the loose edges faced together 
by a peculiarity in the weaving, so that a double pile projects upward 
from a finely woven center-rib or back. These chenille strips now form 
the "filling" for the second weaving, and being woven into a stong linen 
foundation in the same order that the strips were cut off from the orig- 
inal paper pattern, the colors consequently all come together properly, 
and the parts of the whole design come out gradual^ as the second weav- 
ing proceeds. Axminster carpets are classed with the very finest, sur- 
passing in the depth of pile and beauty of coloring some of the present 
Oriental productions ( which by the way are not all as fine as the} r used 
to be.) Some of these goods are three inches thick, and for durabil- 
ity can not be excelled. It is seldom they fiud their way into any but 
wealth}- families, as the best grades cannot be retailed for less than 



36 CARPET 

S ( ).<><) per yard. 

Nearly all Tapestries, Body Brussels, Velvets, Moquetts, Wiltons and 
Axminsters are made in V+ yard widths, with borders to match in 5 8 yard 
widths. Hall borders made to match hall carpets are % yard wide. 

Aubusson carpets, manufactured in a French town of that name, are 
generally in one piece, to suit the size of the room. They are the finest 
and most costly carpets brought into the United States; being made in 
the hand or needle-work style of the India carpets. 

From a strictly artistic point of view carpets should be darker in tone 
and more broken in hue than any portion of the room, both because they 
present the largest mass of color and because they serve as a background 
to the furniture placed upon them. As a general rule lighter carpets 
may be used in rooms thinly furnished than to the contrary, as we should 
otherwise have too overpowering a mass of shade. The patterns should 
always be proportioned to the size of the room, as a small figured carpet 
in a large room makes the floor space appear larger than a large figure 
would, and vice versa. [See Hkmp, Matting, Oil Cloth, Corticexk, 
Linoleum, Kamptulican, Venetian, Dutch Carpets. 1 

The tariff on Aubusson, Axminster Oriental, and Wilton carpets is 60 
cents per square } r ard and in addition thereto 40 percent ad valorem; on 
Brussels carpet, figured or plain, 44 cents per square yard and 40 per 
cent ad valorem; on velvet carpets or tapestry velvet carpets 40 cents 
per square yard and 40 per cent ad valorem; on Tapestry carpets 28 cents 
per square yard and 40 per cent ad valorem; treble Ingrain, three-ply 
and Venetian carpets 19 cents per square yard and 40 per cent ad valorem; 
two-ply Ingrain and Dutch carpets 14 cents per square yard and 40 per 
cent ad valorem; Druggets and bockings 22 cents per square yard and 
40 per cent; mats, rugs, screens, covers, hassocks, bed sides, art squares 
not provided for are subject to a rate of duty imposed on carpets of a like 
character or description. 

CASHMERE. — A textile fabric used for ladies dresses, originally made 
of the fine wool of the cashmere goat, but since 1824, has been manu- 
factured both in England and the United States of fine, soft prime native 
wool. It differs from merino in being twilled on one side only, and from 
Henrietta in having a softer finish and a more subdued luster. [See 
Henrietta.] . 

CASHMERE or KASHMIR SHAWLS are made from the fine downy 
wool of the Cashmere goat, found in Thibet, Asia. These celebrated 
shawls are made in the valley of Cashmere, in the north-west of India. 
The genuine Cashmere shawl is characterized by the great elaboration 
and minute detail of its design, in which the "cone" pattern is a promi- 
nent feature, and by the glowing harmony, brilliance, depth and endur- 



CASHMERE 37 

ing qualities of its colors. These excellences are due to the raw mate- 
rial, which consists of the very fine, soft, flossy under wool of the Cash- 
mere goat. A sing-le goat does not yield more than three ounces, and 
the fleeces of ten goats are requisite for the manufacture of a shawl a 
yard and a half square. The wool is sorted with patient care by hand, 
and spun into fine thread, a work of so much delicacy owing to the short- 
ness of the fibre, that a pound of undyed thread is worth $12.15 cts. 
The various colors, costly and permanent, are dyed in the yarn. The 
shawls are woven in rudely constucted looms, a fine one occupying the la- 
bor of three men a whole year in weaving; and it is to this slow and la- 
borious process that their high prices are due. It is said that although 
$3500.00 has been known to be paid for a single shawl, that but very few 
of the finest ever leave India. The commonest qualities range in price 
as low as $50, and consumes from 16 to 20 weeks in making. There are 
two principal classes, the loom-woven shawls, sometimes woven all in 
one piece, but more often in small strips or squares, which are sewn to- 
gether with such precision and neatness that the sewing is quite imper- 
ceptible, it being simply impossible for the seam to be detected; second 
class comprise embroidered shawls, in which over a plain ground is work- 
ed by needle a minute and elaborate pattern. The great excellence of 
these fabrics has never been equalled. The genuine wool has been im- 
ported into France, and the greatest care exercised in working it up, but 
still all imitations remain imitations. For a long while it was believed 
that the water of Cashmere used in the solution of rice starch, in which 
the wool is frequently washed before use, gave to it a peculiar softness 
and gloss; a belief the natives did not dispute. More recently it has 
been stated that the fine wool used for genuine Cashmere shawls 
is taken from the inner winter fleece of the Thibet yak, as well as the 
Cashmere goat, both inhabiting intensely cold and dry table lands from 
14000 to 16000 feet above the sea level. It is, however, very probable 
that the unwearying patience and inherited skill of the Oriental weavers 
form considable factors in the result, while the particular attention paid 
to preparing the wool, which is carefully cleaned and scrupulously and 
conscientiously sorted, would also have a proportionate influence. At- 
tempts have been recently made to naturalize the Cashmere goat in Cal- 
ifornia, with very successful results. 

Imitations of the real Cashmere shawl are made in France and called 
"Broche,"q. v. and also at Paisley in Scotland, whence comes the name 
"Paisley" shawls. It is also known as the Camel's hair shawl, from the 
popular notion that the finest were made of that material. 

CASSIMERE. — (French cassimir\ has the same origin as Cashmere or 
Kashmir.) Cassimere is the general term applied to that class of all- 
wool cloths used for men's clothing, woven either plain or twilled, coarse 



38 CASSIMERE 

or fine, of "woolen" yarn. The pattern of cassimere is always woven 
in plain and distinct, and the cloth is never napped. In order to make 
the pattern more distinct cassimeres on leaving- the loom are slightly 
felted and then undergo the process of singeing, to remove from their 
surface superfluous nap or ends of wool that have been ruffed up in 
weaving 1 , thus producing a smooth soft surface. It is a mooted question 
which are the better for wear, worsteds or cassimeres, they being the 
exact opposites of each other. The friends of the latter contend that 
the looser and more pliable a woolen cloth is woven, and the greater 
amount of natural elasticity preserved, that much better it will produce 
a resisting surface. 

CASSINETTE.-< Same origin as cashmere. Originally a cloth made 
of a cotton warp and a very fine wool weft. 

CASSOCK. - Any loose cloak or outer coat worn by men, but partic- 
ularly a military one. Also a long- clerical coat, buttoned over the breast 
and reaching to the feet, and drawn in at the waist by a broad sash. In 
the Catholic church its color varies with the dignity of the wearer: priests 
wear black; bishops purple; cardinals, scarlet; and the pope, white. If 
lined with fur it is called a pelisse. 

CELLULOID. — A combination of gun cotton and camphor. Its suc- 
cessful manufacture and introduction has only been accomplished in the 
the past twelve years. Celluloid consists virtually of vegetable fibre, 
treated with certain acids, under certain conditions; the resultant pro- 
duct being united with camphor and other suitable substances so as to 
make it elastic and capable of being molded in any form. 

CHALLI is made either of wool or cotton, or a mixture of the two, 
and are distinguished by their being thin, soft and pliable, without any 
sizing, gloss or polish. The pattern is usually printed on, though in 
some of the finer grades of pure wool ehallis the pattern is produced in 
the loom. Challis possess a softness, with at the same time sufficient 
"body" — produced by special treatment in spinning and weaving — and 
when printed in fast colors are capable of a finish not found in any 
other variety of dress goods. All wool Challi does not differ materially 
from the old fashioned delaine. Neither fabric wrinkles easily, and both 
have a cool, dainty look especially suited for summer weather. Most 
Challi patterns are copied from French silks, which is one of the many 
reasons for their unusually tasteful designs and artistic effects. 

CI1AMBKAY gets its name from Cambray. France, where it was 
first woven of linen. At present it is a speciesof gingham, with a linen 
finish, in which rarely more thau two colors are used; it is made of ex- 
tra line cotton and rather stiff}' sized with pure starch. 



CHECKS 39 

CHECKS were formerly called plaids; the word check having- come in- 
to use from the practice of courts and banks to settle accounts and com- 
pute money by means of counters or tallies on a table covered with a 
square checkered cloth; the word having- originally been derived from 
French echiquier — a chess board. 

CHEESE CLOTH is a thin limp muslin either brown or bleached 
which dairymen use to cover their cheese. Another variety called Cot- 
ton Bunting is woven smoother and more even, and is used by women 
for a cheap white dress goods. It is entirely free from starch or sizing. 

CHEFRON — A species of thin transparent silk gauze, woven of threads 
so fine that ordinary print may be read through it as easity as though the 
fabric did not cover the paper. It is stated that one pound of the warp 
of Chefron would extend 8 miles. 

CHEMISE is the French word for shirt, and is derived from the Arabic 
cam is, which also means shirt. The innermost garment worn by women; 
anciently known as shift, or smock. Chemisette is the diminutive of chem- 
ise. A ladies garment for covering- the neck, made of some light fabric, 
as lace or cambric, usually worn under a waist cut lower at the neck, in 
imitation of the exposed portion of men's shirt bosoms. 

CHENILLE, the French name for caterpillar, is a beautiful description 
of cord employed for embroidery and decorative purposes. The name 
denotes the appearance of the material, which somewhat resembles that 
of a hairy caterpillar. It is usually made of silk, is sometimes a combi- 
nation of silk and wool, and has been produced in wool onl}'. There 
are two sizes; the coarse is called "Chenille Ordinaire," the small "Chen- 
ille a Broader. " There is also another kind of chenil le called ' 'Pomponet, " 
having a very long pile, boa-shaped and employed for neckties. For 
the purposes # of milliner}- it is mounted on fine wire. The line, soft silk 
chenille is that used for embroidery and sold in art colors. 

CHENILLE CLOTH.— A fabric made with a fringed silken thread 
used as the weft, in combination with wool or cotton — a fur-like surface 
is thus produced, whence its name. 

CHEVIOT. — A twill-woven, napped woolen cloth, originallv made 
from the wool of the Cheviot sheep. These sheep were formerly natives 
of the Cheviot Hills, near the boundary between Scotland and England. 
Genuine Cheviot is always woven on a twill, and is finished with a close 
matted nap; of late years napped flannels frequently bear the title of 
Cheviot. 

CHEVIOT SHIRTING originally signified a soft finished cotton 
fabric free from sizing, but of late years has come to include all medium 
grades of fine-threaded shirting. 



4ii CHINA SILK 

CHINA SILK is the name properly applied to silks woven in China, 
on the primitive hand looms of that country, in which both warp and 
weft are exactly alike, being" of the same size and woven in evenly. 
These silks arc easily recognized on account of the imperfection-- which 
always mark hand spinning and hand weaving-; some of the threads be- 
ing heavier than others, a somewhat irregular surface is produced. 
Japanese silks are the same but in name. The name "China" silk has 
also been adopted recently for a class of machine-woven silks made in 
imitation of the more servicable hand loom silks of China and Japan, 
but these machine goods are free from the imperfection of uneven 
threads. Real China and Japan silks possess a beautiful natural lustre, 
and come only in cream, white and ecru, the patterns (if any) being- 
printed ou after landing- in this country. [See India Silk.] 

CHINCHILLA. — A squirrel-like animal found in the mountains of 
South America. The ancient Peruvians were accustomed to employ 
the wool of these animals in the manufacture of fine fabrics. The fur 
is of a pearly-gray color, rolled into little tufts; much used for muffs 
and tippets, lining for cloaks, etc. 

Chinchilla overcoating is a thick, heavy, double-woven fabric [ see 
Weaving and Teasung ] formerly of a pearly-gray color, with a long 
napped surface rolled up into little tufts in imitation of Chinchilla fur. 
At present it is manufactured in all colors and qualities, used for men's 
overcoats and ladies' cloaks. Chinchilla is found both in all wool and 
"union", usually with a slight nap raised on the wrong side. It differs 
from Frieze in not being so heav} r , and from Montenac and Fur Beaver 
in having its surface-nap rolled or curled into small tufts. 

CHINE is applied to fabrics in which the warp is dyed in different 
colors, so that a mottled effect is produced, or in which a double thread 
formed of two smaller threads of different colors, twisted together, is 
used to produce a similar mottled or speckled appearance. In Chine 
silks the threads are colored in a similar manner, so that when woven 
up into the fabric the peculiar appearance of the shadow is produced. 

CHUDDER is the name given to the plain shawls of Cashmere of solid 
color, without pattern except a herringbone twill, or if embroidered 
having the embroidery the same color as the ground. 

CLAN TARTANS.— Tartan is from Milanese tartantanna, which 
signfied linsey-woolsey, or cloth of different materials and colors. 
These parti-colored plaids were long worn by different Scotch clans, in 
various combinations of colors. The exact date of the introduction of 
"clan tartans" in this country, which have at times assumed so many 
wonderful and picturesque varieties, is assigned to 1822. The fashion 
of wearing these plaids has been revived from time to time during re- 



CLAN TARTANS 41 

cent }-ears, and have been variously styled "Scotch Plaids," "Clan Tar- 
tans," "Tartan Plaids" etc; The numerous clans into which the High- 
land population was divided had each a special tartan, by which it was 
distinguished, but man} 7 new aud imaginary "sets" have been invented 
by manufacturers, with the result of introducing- confusion in the 
heraldry of Tartans, and of throwing doubt on the realit}' of the dis- 
tinctive "sets" which at one time were undoubtedly recognized as the 
badge of various clans. 

CLOCK. — (From clokke, which in its original sense meant a bell.) 
Applied at first, in 1542, to a bell-shaped ornament or flower on the 
side of hoods and hose. At present any figured ornament on the side of 
the ankle of a stocking, either woven in the fabric or embroidered 
upon it. 

CLOTH.— (Formerly Cloath, origin uncertain.) A fabric or texture 
of wool or hair, or of cotton, flax, hemp, ramie or other vegetable fibre 
formed by weaving or intermixture of threads, and used for garments 
or other covering. Specifically, in the trade, a fabric of wool in contra- 
distinction to one made of other materials. 

COCOA MATTING is made of coir, which is the thick, fibrous husk 
which surrounds the cocoa nut when first taken from the tree. This 
husk is spun into a small cord and the matting is woven thick and heavy 
and rather open in texture, so as to permit the dust and dirt to sift 
through it; especially- used where much wear is expected. The tariff 
on Cocoa matting is 12 cents per square yard, and on door mats 8 cents 
per square foot. 

CONEY FUR is the fur of rabbits, used for making felt for hats and 
also in the manufacture of the cheapest grade of fur caps. [See Fur.] 

CONVENT CLOTH is woven with a silk warp and wool filling, the 
weave resembling that of linen momie cloth as seen in towels etc. It 
is a light weight fabric and comes in white and plain colors, used for 
portions of ladies' fine dresses. 

CORAH SILK is a light East India washing textile, of a cream white, 
lighter in shade than the Pongee or Chinese undyed silks. It is much 
used by the young ladies for evening d ress, being very economical in 
wear. 

CORDUROY. — (French corde clu roi, royal cord or king's cord.) A 
thick cotton material corded or ribbed on the surface. It is extremely 
durable, and is especially used for the garments of men engaged in 
rough labor, field sports and the like. The general structure of corduroy 
is the same as velvet q. v., with a twill foundation and a pile surface. 
The cords are produced by a peculiar disposition o»f the pile threads 



42 CORDUROY 

they being "thrown in" where the corded portions are and absent in the 
narrow spaces between them. After leaving- the loom and undergoing 
the operations of brushing and singeing to give the cloth a smooth ap- 
pearance, it is piece-dyed, usually some shade of olive, slate or drab. 

CORKSCREW WORSTED.— So called from its fancied resemblance 
to the twists of a corkscrew; this particular weave has for several years 
been extensive^ employed in the manufacture of worsted goods, more 
especially in cloths intended for men's clothing. The remarkably long 
run and success of the Corkscrew pattern has had but few parallels in 
the history of cloth manufacture. The structure of what may be termed 
the ordinary class .of Corkscrews is based on the Sateen q. v. or Cashmere 
principle. It is predicted that the time is not far distant when Fashion 
will cease to smile on this particular weave, and then they will have 
had their run — together with Broadcloth and Doeskin they will exist 
onlv as memories of things that have been. 

CORSET is derived from French cors, body; hence corpse, corsage etc. 
In the middle ages corsests were made w T ith skirts and sleeves. At 
present a close fitting waist, usually made of quilted jean, stiffened with 
strips of whalebone. 

CORSET JEANS. — A double fold calendered cotton drilling used prin- 
cipally at present 'for lining the waists of ladies dresses. [See Jean.] 

COTTON. — Among all the materials which the skill of man converts 
into comfortabte and elegant clothing, that which appears to be the most 
extensively useful, thongh it was the last to be generally diffused, is the 
beautiful product of the cotton plant. The native botanical home of 
cotton is in the East. Since the fifth century before Christ, India al- 
most every where throughout her wide-spread countries arrayed, as she' 
still arrays, herself in cotton, gathered from a plant of the Gossypium 
family which has its wild growth there. More than two thousand 
years before England conceived the idea of applying modern industry- 
to the manufacture of cotton, India had matured a s3 T stem of hand spin- 
ning, weaving and dyeing which during that vast period received no 
recorded improvement. The people, though remarkable for their intel- 
ligence whilst Europe was in a state of barbarism, made no attempt to 
improve upon their laborious hand processes, nor was the cultivation of 
cotton either improved or considerably extended. Possessing soil, clmate 
and all the requisite elements from nature for the production of cotton 
to an almost boundless extent, and of a useful and acceptable quality. 
India for a long series of years did but little towards supplying the 
manufacturers of other countries with the raw material which they re- 
quired. With the discovery of America, however, a competitor arose in 
the production of this valuable staple: tardy and uncertain as was the 



S 



COTTON 43 

development of our cotton industry prior to 1792, the invention of the 
cotton gin by Eli Whitney in that year, gave it a magical impetus which 
has placed the United States foremost among the cotton producing 
countries of the world, and at present the raw materials most in demand 
by manufacturers on either side of the Atlantic are the "Sea Island," 
"New Orleans" and "Upland" varieties, which taken together are un- 
equalled by the products of any other part of the globe. 

The Sea Island cotton, grown in the soft and balmy climate of low- 
lying islands off the coast of Georgia, Carolina and Florida, where frost 
is scarcely known, has surpassed all other varieties of cotton in the 
length and beauty of its staple. The delicate and silken filaments of 
this variety renders it highly valuable in the production of the finest 
yarns. It is never introduced into the coarser muslins, but is used for 
the most delicate fabrics, and very largely in the manufacture of the 
finest quality of cotton thread; and it is also consumed in large quanti- 
ties b}- silk manufacturers, the line, soft and glossy fibre rendering a 
mixture with the thread of the silk worm difficult to be detected. "Up- 
land" cotton is generalh' a light flimsy cotton, of a weak and very un- 
equal staple, used ordinarily for the rilling, or weft threads. "New 
Orleans 1 ' cotton is superior to Upland, and has the preference on account 
of its clean, soff and glossy appearance. It is rather short in staple, 
but even and strong. It is said that no crop in the United States presents 
an appearance so beautiful as growing - cotton, especially at the gather- 
ing season, when the globes of snowy wool are seen among the glossy 
dark green leaves, exhibiting at the same time on a single stem the ex- 
panding blossom, the bursting pod and the snowy flakes of ripe cotton. 
Every boll of cotton contains seeds resembling unground coffee, which 
when removed, leave only about one-third in weight of clean cotton. 
These seeds are removed by the cotton gin, and the cleaned cotton is 
then taken to the spreading--machine, through which it passes and is 
wound in a fleecy state upon a large wooden roller, to be transferred to 
the carding machine. 

Carding of cotton is the process of disentangling and arranging in 
parallel rows the fibres of the cotton, so as to facilitate the twisting of 
them together. Carding may be compared to the combing and brushing- 
of one's hair, and the card combines the properties of the comb and brush, 
being a larg-e brush with wire teeth instead of bristles. These teeth 
are inserted in strips of leather, which are fastened to the surface of a 
cylinder. Several of such cylinders are so arranged that the ends of the 
teeth are nearly in contact, and the cotton being brought to them, is 
caught up, passed from one to the other and combed out as the cylinders 
turn round, in the form of beautiful films or fleeces. These films, which 
are the width of the cylinders, are next contracted to a narrow ribbon 



44 



COTTON 



by being- passed throug-h a funnel and drawn out, in order to make them 
ready for the next process, called spinning-. 

In spinning cotton there are two kinds of machines used — "throstles" 
and "mules." The throstle is employed in the spinning of yarn for 
warps. This } T arn has its fibre closer twisted than that spun upon the 
mule, and is more esteemed for certain purposes, especially for making 
sewing thread. The mule, or mule-jenny, differs from the throstle in 
that it spins a yarn much liner and softer, though more wooly in texture 
than throstle yarn; mule yarn besides forming the weft of cloth is also 
doubled and used for a variety of purposes wherein a tightly-twisted, 
thread-like yarn is not required. 

Cotton after being spun, is folded in hanks of 840 yards in length. 
The number of this cotton yarn is owing to the number of hanks 840 
yards long that weigh one pound. 



Of No. 



10 


yarn. 10 


hanks of 


840 


20 


20 


a it. 


840 


50 


50 


" 


840 


60 


60 


" 


840 


70 


70 


" 


840 


80 


" 80 


" 


840 


90 


90 


" 


840 


100 


" 100 


t c tt 


840 



yards each, weigh one pound. 



On the latest improved mule-jenny a single thread has been produced 
upwards of one thousand miles in length. 

COTTONADE is the name given to a coarse, heavy variety of cotton 
cloth used for men's cheap clothing, distinguished from cotton w T orsted 
by being plain- woven and of coarser threads. The reason of cottonade 
having lost its former popularity, is on account of the superior and more 
stylish cotton "cassimeres" which have come into fashion, and also from 
the fact that shoddy woolen goods can be purchased for almost the same 
price. Man}- of the old cottonade mills do not make a piece of the old 
fabric except in small quantities for special orders; several of the once 
prominent cottonade makers are even scarcely remembered. The decline 
in the demand for the durable cottonade is oneof the things to be regret- 
ted, but as a matter of fact the decrease in the production of this cloth 
as a specialty for men's clothing has been wonderful. 

COUNTERPANE.— The top cover for a bed, stitched or woven in 
squares, from the idea of panes or square openings, such as were for- 
merly employed in some parts of dress — point against point. It is also 
claimed to have been derived from the French word Countre poyn, a 
wadded wrapper or quilt. [See Quilts, Marseilles. ] 



COVENTRY BLUE 45 

COVENTRY BLUE in 1581 was a kind of vivid blue thread produced 
at Coventry England, dyed with a kind of indig-o and used for fancy 
embroidery. 

COVERLET. — The outer covering- for a bed, sometimes incorrectly 
called "coverlid.'" 

CRAPE proper is a silk fabric of a gauz} r texture, having a peculiar 
crisp and crimpy appearance. It is woven of hard spun silk yarn "in 
the gum," or natural condition. There are two distinct varieties of this 
textile, soft (Canton or Oriental) crape and hard, or crisped crape. 

The wavy appearance of soft crape results from the peculiar manner in 
which the "filling" is prepared, the yarn from two bobbins being twisted 
together in the reverse way. The fabric when first woven is smooth 
and even, but when the gum is afterwards extracted by boiling from 
two to four hours in very hot water, it at once becomes soft, and the 
filling losing its twist naturally gives the farbic the waved structure 
which is its distinguishing feature. These soft crapes are used either 
white or colored for ladies scarfs and shawls, bonnet trimmings, etc. 
The Chinese and Japanese produce the finest crapes manufactured. 

The crisp, crimped and elastic structure of hard crape is not produced 
either in the spinning or the weaving, but is due to processes through 
which- the gauze passes after it is woven. What the exact details of 
these processes are is onty known to a few manufactures, who so jeal- 
ously guard their secret that in many cases the different stages of the 
manufacture are carried on in towns far removed from each other. 
However, it is known that the hard or mourning crapes are woven of 
hard spun silk yarn "in the gum," and in order to produce the crimp 
they are passed between heavy steel rollers, the surfaces of which are 
so creased and indented as to produce the pattern desired. They are 
almost exclusively dyed black and used for mourning purposes. Com- 
mercially they are distinguished as single, double, 3-ply and 4-ply. 

Albert Crape is a variety composed of a union of silk and cotton. 
Victoria Crape is of all cotton. The width of these varies from 32 in. 
to one yard. India Crape is a fine silk crape gauze, of an extremely 
light texture. Crinkled Crape is another any fabric, woven after the 
manner of crinkled seersucker, dyed in solid colors. Imperial Crape is 
a crinkley gossamer silk fabric used for ladies' neckwear. Japan Crape 
is a very light weight, close-woven silk fabric, closely resembling 
Crepe de Chine in structure, except that the Japan has no lustre. Can- 
ton Crape is a light, soft variety, usually half silk and half cotton. 
Crape Cloth is woven of all wool and dyed in all colors. It is of an ir- 
regular weave, much resembling the weaves of Japan Crape and Crepe 
de Chine. 



46 CRASH 

CRASH is from Latin crassus, and is a general term used to denote any 
strong coarse linen fabric used for towelling - , packing-, and for dancing- 
cloths to cover carpets, tarpaulins etc. Crash and towels, both in their 
use and title, have remained unchanged for a long period, even if they 
have ever known change. 

CRAVAT is a corruption of the German word crabat. In 1636 an 
Austrian regiment of soldiers arrived in Paris France, in the dress of 
which one characteristic was much admired by the people — a neck wrap- 
per or scarf of silk woven by the officers and muslin by the soldiers, all 
alike tied in a bow with pendant ends. The Parisians speedily adopted 
the novelty; and whenever Paris starts a fashion the balance of the 
world meekly follows it. In time cravat came to mean any sort of a 
scarf not made up, which was tied after being placed around the neck 

CREPE DE CHINE.— The term applied to a variety of extremely thin 
crape q. v. silk, distinguished by being woven of very hue silk and its 
lustrous surface. (See Chine and Crapk. ) 

CREPON — A species of soft fine crinkled crape, woven in satin stripes; 
very transparent and gauzy. 

CRETONNE takes its name from the first maker, M. Cretonne, of Paris. 
Originally it was a strong- white fabric of hempen warp and cotton weft 
with various textures of surface, sometimes plain, but oftener twilled or 
"momied," printed on one side with large flower patterns, usually in col- 
ors, and used for curtains, lambrequins, furniture covering etc. It is 
woven with a fine warp and coarse weft, of various widths, and finished 
dull or ungdazed. 

CREAVEL is from the German word Kleioel, a ball of thread. Crewel 
is a fine two-threaded worsted yarn, slackly twisted, used in a kind of 
embroidery work, usually upon a linen foundation. 

CRINOLINE. — (From Fr. crin, horse hair, and linum, flax.) When 
first manufactured crinoline was woven of horse hair and linen, but is 
now woven of cotton stiffly sized, and used as a cheap mateial for stiff- 
ening ladies' dresses. The original material began to be used about 1852 
in the manufacture of ladies stiff skirts; and when this fashion was fol- 
lowed by that of wearing- greatly projecting skirts of wire or steel springs, 
the word crinoline continued to be used to designate the latter article. 
'The first crinoline skirts for expanding the dress was invented by Emp- 
ress Eugenia of France, just before the birth of the Prince Imperial, and 
the fashion was adopted by Queen Victoria when Princess Beatrice was 
expected. The amplitude given to the skirts by this invention is unim- 
aginable, i See Hoopskirt and Farthingale.) 



CROWN LINING 47 

CROWN LINING is a fine crinoline or stiff tarlatan, used by mill- 
iners for lining- the crowns of ladies bonnets. 

CUT CASHMERE is a variety of twilled, double-fold dress goods 
having- fine sunken lines running the length of the web producing an ap- 
pearance somewhat of "dropped threads' 1 or incisions. Also known as . 
Sebastopol, and woven all wool and with a cotton warp. 

D 

DAMASK. — A textile fabric woven in elaborate patterns, of various 
designs, as flowers, leaves, etc., woven in the loom. It was originally 
made in Damascus in the Twelfth century, when Damascus had attained 
a perfection in weaving then unexampled, whence its name. Damas- 
cene, or Damascus cloth, thus became synonomous with excellence and 
splendor, and in time came to denote any fabric of rich working and 
elaborate design. At present it signifies either of two entirely differ- 
ent materials; (1) Curtain Damask; sometimes called Tapestry, which 
is made of silk and wool, or silk and cotton, in large vari-colored pat- 
terns woven up in the loom, used chiefly for furniture covering, curtains 
and portieres; (2) Table Damask, which is a fine twilled linen and cotton 
fabric, used especially in making table linen q. v. It is generally orna- 
mented with a pattern that shows itself by opposite reflections of light 
from the surface, without contrast of color. This effect is produced by 
the satin principle of twill weaving. [See Satin.] The name Dam- 
ask is also applied to a cotton fabric usually found in different shades 
of red, and used for curtains, table covers andthe like. 

Double Damask is an eight-leaf twill, and Single Damask a four-leaf 
twill; i. e. in which the pattern is formed by the warp passing over 
eight and four wefts respectively and then under one, and over eig-hf or 
four more respectively, and so on. 

DAMASKED. — Ornamented with flowers or patterns on the surface 
which are produced by weaving and not b} _ printing or stamping-. The 
word " Damasked " when applied to linen or cotton texture--, or to 
mixed materials when used for upholsterv purposes, has much the >ame 
meaning as 'brocaded' when applied to silk and wool textures. 

DARNINCt NEEDLES are sold at wholesale by the thousand— sizes 
varying from 12 coarse to 18 fine, with usuall}' a rise in price .of 10 
cents per size. Double long- darners are sized and 00. [See 
Needees.] 

DeBEIGE is a French word meaning unbleached serge, At one 
time in France there was a sort of twilled dress g-oods made of un- 
bleached and undyed grey cotton warp and unbleached and undyed 



48 DeBEIGE 

woolen weft, called Beige. At present in this country it is one of the 
few dress goods which has not departed far from the original fabric. 
Although it is now dyed to some extent it still remains a twilled serge- 
like material in shades of gray, drab and slate. 

DELAINES. — (French mousselines de laine, or muslin of wool.) An 
expressive title which signifies fully what manner of fabric the}- prop- 
erly should be. Delaines are either plain untwilled or brocaded dress 
goods, which should always be made of wool, but which frequently may 
be found of cotton and wool mixed. The old fashioned, soft, plain 
woven delaine is easily recognized at present under the name of Challi. 
Manufacturers and importers undoubtedly think that to change the 
name of a rose occasionally adds to its odor. The endurance of this 
material is wonderful, it does not wrinkle easily, and when made up 
and properly draped, has an essentially feminine and dainty look. 

DENIM. — A coarse cotton drilling used for overalls and working 
shirts, of which the quality is denoted by the weight in ounces per 
square yard. 

DIAGONAL is a term introduced in the United States about 1875 for 
a variety of worsteds used in making men's clothing, especially for 
coats and vests; it is twilled in such a manner that the diagonal ridg-es 
are somewhat prominent and noticeable. 

DIAPER in textile manufactures applies to the pattern or weave of a 
fabric. The word diaper is derived from diasper, an angled stone once 
much used for ornamenting jewelry. In the manufacture of cotton and 
woolen cloth the term is applied to those fabrics which have small pat- 
terns of geometrical regularity, such as are produced by the kaleido- 
scope, or as diamonds, arrow heads, birds' eyes, etc., woven in their 
texture. In Ireland and Scotland there is manufactured a damask lin- 
en called Diaper, also a kind called Union, composed of linen and cot- 
ton. There are also cotton goods of this description, including- Russia 
Diaper, which is held in much esteem. The finest linen Diapers with 
the smallest diamond, fish e} T e or birds' e}*e patterns are chiefly used 
for children's clothing. 

DICKEY. — A separate shirt-front worn over the breast in place of a 
shirt, or to hide a shirt not fit to be seen. These were at one time 
called sIki ms, and were worn over plain shirts for mam* years in the 
first half of this century. 

DIMITY owes its name to Damietta, a town in Lower Egypt, which 
was once of great commercial importance, and where first was manu- 
factured the cotton fabric now called Dimity, a kind of stout white 
cotton goods, either woven corded or in small raised figures, as diaper 



DIMITY 49 

patterns, usually 4-4 yard wide and used for white dresses, aprons, and 
in ornamenting- beds and bedroom furniture. Patterns are sometimes 
printed upon it in colors. When woven corded it resembles pique and 
marseilles. 

DOESKIN. — A compact twilled "woolen" cloth, so called from the 
imaginary resemblance to the skin of the doe, on account of its softness 
and pliability. Doeskin was formerly extensively used for men's panta- 
loons and was dyed black, blue, gray, brown and other solid colors; 
either three-quarters or six-quarters wide. The finest quality sold in 
this country is of French manufacture, being far superior in make, fin- 
ish, and coloring- to the American Doeskin. [See Wool, Felting, 
Teasling and Singeing.] 

DOLMAN. — A variet}^ of ladies' wrap, characterized by a hanging- 
piece over the arm instead of a sleeve, of various lengths, from very 
short to almost reaching- the ground. From Turkish dolama, which is 
a long robe open in front and having narrow sleeves buttoned at the 
wrist, worn by the Turks over their outer garments. 

DOMET. — A loosely woven soft cotton material of the flannel family, 
napped slightly on both sides, varying in price from 5 to 15 cents per 
yard. There are also Domet shirtings, being the same organization 
made in stripes, checks and plaids. 

DORNOCK. — So called from being manufactured originally at Dor- 
nock,. Scotland. A stout, figured linen, now generally used for check- 
ered table linen. Also sometimes called Dornic, having a simple dia- 
per pattern. 

DOWLASS, like many other names of cloths, is from a town-name, 
said to be from Dowlais, France. Until the introduction of machine- 
woven cotton cloth, Dowlass was a strong - and coarse linen fabric, used 
for purposes not requiring fine linen, principally common shirting, 
ladies' skirts and chemise; it is a species of what was known as hol- 
land, q. v. The name is still perpetuated in a strong calico made in 
imitation of the cotton fabric. 

DOYLEY or DOILEY.— Said to be so called from the name of the 
first maker — Sir John D'Oyley, A fringed napkin made of linen or cot- 
ton, white or colored. 

DRAP DE ALMA.— A line, close, flat-ribbed twilled dress fabric of 
wool, or silk and wool, finished on but one side; somewhat heavier than 
cashmere, or Biretz. The twill weave of Drape d Alma is very similar 
to that of Satin Royal, and only different from a Satin Rhadame twill in 
the diagonal lines being closer together. 



50 DRAP 'DTE. 

DRAP 'D TE is a species af ladies 1 worsted dress goods, woven in fine 
longitudinal cords, sometimes dyed in shades of brown and drab, but 
usually black; also used for men's summer coats and vests. 

DRAPER. Drap is French for cloth, and draper in England, and 
drapier in France are the terms used to designate a dealer in cloth, or. 
clothing, dry goods or textile fabrics of any description; synonymous with 
merchant, or dry goods merchant in the United States. The Drapers' 
Company, of London, is a very improtant and influential body of mer- 
chants, having been incorporated since 1364, and at the present time 
owning two large buildings called Halls, where they hold regular meet- 
ings twice a month. The company is a combination board of trade and 
benevolent association, and their objects seem to be to secure special 
city legislation favorable to their business, and to assist unfortunate 
members who are worthy. Some of the company's rules are of great in- 
terest; apprentices are received as members by paying a certain fee, 
and the company becomes responsible to an employer for their actions. 
If these apprentices become wayward and need correcting, they re- 
ceive a flogging by two tall men disg-uised in canvass frocks and hoods, 
twopennv worth of birch rods being expended on his moral improve- 
ment. 

DRILLING.— (From Ger. Drillich-drei, 3.) A three cord twilled 
material of either linen or cotton. There are two varieties, one used by 
tailors, and in the manufacture of underwear — known as bleached and 
unbleached; the other a finer woven, better finished material, known as 
dress drilling- and found in all colors. 

DRUGGET. — (From Fr. droguet — trash.) In the carpet department 
is known as a large square rug or mat, used as a protection for carpets 
under tables, etc. 

DUCK. — (Scotch Doock. Sw. Duk Cloth.)' A species of coarse linen 
or cotton cloth, never made with a twill, commonly used for making 
sails, tents, awnings, sacks, bedding and overalls. It is made in 
various colors and widths. The quality is denoted like Denim, by the 
weight of the cloth in ounces per square vard. 

DUTCH carpet is a very strong and cheap wool carpeting, usually 
woven in stripes and checks. The tariff on imported Dutch carpet is 
14 cents per yard, and 4() per cent ad valorem. [See Carpets.] 



ECRU 51 

E 

ECRU is the French word for "raw," or "unbleached," when applied 
to linen, silk or other textile fabrics. In the United States the same 
meaning- is attached to the word; as having- the color of unbleached silk 
or linen, hence by extension having any similar shade of neutral color, 
as the color of hemp or hempen cord. 

ELASTIC WEB is a material woven in bands from half an inch to 
twelve inches in width. The rubber slips are cut from wide thin sheets 
of india-rubber q. v., and these lie parallel to the warp in weaving. 
Ordinary silk and cotton elastic is woven plain, or "single," but the 
heavy grades for suspenders etc. are woven "double," that is with two 
warps and two wefts, [see Weaving] with the strips of rubber in the 
center of the two webs. First manufactured in 1820. 

ELECTORAL CLOTH, or BIRETZ.— A dress fabric of wool or silk 
and wool, with a Cashmere face upon one side, and a round close-ribbed 
or "repped" surface on the other, usually made reversible. [ See Em- 
press Cloth.] 

ELL — A measure of different lengths in different countries, used ex- 
clusively for measuring cloth. The English Ell is 45 inches, and is 
identical in meaning and origin to the word aune, which is also a cloth 
measure of one yard and a quarter. Both of these words are derived 
from the Latin alna, forearm or elbow. 

EMBROIDERY is the art of working with the needle flowers, leaves, 
vines and other forms upon wool, silk, cotton or other woven texture. 
That it is of the greatest antiquity we have the testimony of Moses and 
Homer; and it takes precedence of painting, as the earliest method of 
representing figures and ornaments was by needle work traced upon 
canvas. In mediaeval times embroidery was the chief occupation of 
women of all ranks, from the palace to the cloister, and sharp rivalry 
existed in the production of sacerdotal vestments and ornaments. Nuns 
embroidered robes adorned with sacred subjects; girls produced admir- 
able embroidery decorated with appropriate designs for the benefit of 
the monasteries; chasubles and mantles were embroidered on silk and 
embellished with gold and gems by the the fair hands of queens and 
princesses. From the 9th to the 15th century was a glorious period for 
needle work. Not only were figures and portraits produced, but also 
floral, rococo and arabesque ornamentation; flowers in the grandiose 
style, wrought with arabesques of gold and silver, Avere characteristic 
designs of the period; and heraldry offered an opportunity for embroid- 
ery upon the surcoats and tabards of men-at-arms. 



52 EMBROIDERY 

From ;in industrial point of view the art may be ranged into two 
classes. First, that described above, in which Persia and the extreme 
East are the greatest masters in modern times; second, white embroid- 
ery applied to dress and furniture, upon cloth, cambric, swiss, etc., in 
which Switzerland holds first place and France next. The manufac- 
ture of Hamburg - embroidery has of late years become as prominent an 
industry as lace making. Begun about thirty years ago at St. Gall, 
Switzerland, with one machine, the demand has so increased and the 
work so spread that there are now said to be in use 25>,0<><> machines 
making Hat-stitch embroidery, and employing a vast army of opera- 
tives of all ages. 

EMBROIDERY SILK in fancy colors usually come put up on 10-yard 
spools, each spool being equal to four ordinary cards or skeins. All 
colors except black and white are EE in size (equal to No. 300 in knit- 
ting silk). Black and white come in four sizes, E, EE, F, FF, from 
fine. to coarse in the order named. 

EMPRESS CLOTH was first made for and worn by Empress Eugenia 
of France, hence the name. It is a rather heavy dress goods, with a 
finely repped or corded surface, frequently with a cashmere or satteen 
twill on the opposite side; also called Biretz and Electoral cloth. 

EPINGLE is a French word signifying- small, fine pin wire. The 
term is descriptive of the fabric, as Epingle is a thin silk, woven with 
rather heav}^ raised cords, as if a fine wire had been inserted in place of 
the welt to make the cords more prominent, though in point of fact, 
hard twisted "worsted" threads are used for this purpose in the better 
grades, and cotton for the cheaper. The patterns in Epingle silks vary, 
sometimes there being but a single cord at close and regular intervals 
and again two or three tog-ether at different distances apart. The 
cords have a high polish, forming a contrast with the lustreless ground. 
This silk is frequently found in ribbons and neckties. 

ESTAMENE is a French all-wool cloth, something like a serge, 
but having a rough, nappy face. Being- made in different qualities, it 
varies considerably in price, but uniformly measures 25 inches in witdh. 
It is employed for women's dresses. In weather suitable for the wearing 
of serge. e>tamene might be a fitting substitute, but at the same time is 
a superior kind of dress material to the former. 

EVERLASTING.— A very durable white cotton edging, distin- 
guished by being made in rows of continuous holes surounded and sep- 
arated by a light flat braid or cord. Its width is indicated by the num- 
ber of rows of holes, from one-hole narrow to eierht-hole wide. 



FABRIC 53 

F 

FABRIC. — Manufactured cloth; texture; stuff; cloth. 

FACTORY originally implied the residence of factors; that is, agents 
or brokers, whose duty was the buying- or selling - of goods for merchants 
residing elsewhere, to see them packed and shipped to the persons for 
whom the^y Avere bought. The modern significance of the term is a 
building" or group of buildings appropriated to the manufacture of goods. 
The factory system has arisen from the rapid growth of the woolen and 
cotton industries, and the consequent subdivision of labor which rendered 
necessary the centralizing of various departments of manufacture. It 
has gradually grown to its present dimensions since 1770, through the 
invention of the humble barber of Preston, Richard Arkwright, who is 
generally regarded as its founder. Prior to this time silk, woolen, lin- 
en and cotton yarns for weaving were spun by hand, a single one at a 
time, but with the aid of Arkwright's spinning frame, a vast number of 
threads of any degree of fineness and hardness can be spun. It con- 
sists of several pairs of rollers, turned by means of machinery. The 
lower roller of each pair is fluted or furrowed, and the upper one is cov- 
ered with leather, to make them take hold of the cotton, wool, etc. If 
there were only one pair of rollers, it is clear that the fibre passed be- 
tween them would be drawn forward by the revolution of the rollers 
(similar to running clothes through a clothes wringer); but it would 
merely undergo a certain degree of compression from their action. No 
sooner, however, has the fibre begun to pass through the first pair of 
rollers than it is received by the second pair, which are made to revolve 
four times as fast as the first pair, and so on through the other sets of 
rollers. By this ingenious contrivance the mass of cotton, wool, etc., is 
drawn out into a thread of any desired length or fineness. Such is the 
principle on which Arkwright constructed his famous spinning frame, 
the idea of which he accidentally derived from seeing a red-hot iron bar 
elongated by being made to pass between rollers. 

Cheap coal or abundant water power is no longer as it once was, the 
first requirement of the factory owner; it is still an important one, but 
it has become secondary to that of cheap transportation. There are 
parts of New England the water power of which is possibly great 
enough to supply the motive power for all the spindles and looms in the 
country, and yet in districts which once were centers of cotton and 
wool manufacture, of large and contented communities of working peo- 
ple, there remain in abandoned works and deserted tenements nothing 
but monuments of a former population and prosperity. The cheap mo- 
tive power is still there, but the greater desideratum of cheap transpor- 
tation is lacking, and because of it poverty and ruin prevail in many of 



54 FACTORY COTTON. 

the once prosperous districts of New England. The factories are slowly 
and surely moving- West and South, following- the center of population. 
It is predicted that another generation will see the cotton mannfactures- 
<>f this country entirety produced in the South, on account of recently 
developed railroad facilities and the nearness to the raw material. The 
ten years between 1880 and 1890 witnesed an increase of 10,000 looms in 
seven southern states, and it is estimated that these states produce 34 
per cent of all brown cottons manufactured in the United States. 

FACTORY COTTON is unbleached cotton muslin, as opposed to 
bleached or imported fabrics; also called "factory" and "domestic." 

FACTORY YARN is coarse unscoured woolen yarn, or yarn "in the 
grease." It is usually made b} r the interior woolen mills, and is used 
by country people for knitting heavy winter hose. It is generally put 
up in hanks four-to-the-pound, and unlike fancy yarns weighs out full 
sixteen ounces per pound. 

FAILLE was, in the 16th century, the name of a peculiar heavy silk 
veiling worn at first by nuns, but later by women of all classes. The 
word has had different meanings at diff erent times. At present it indi- 
cates a popular variety of soft, ribbed dress silk having a grain or cord 
not so heavy as an Ottoman cord, but about twice as large as that of 
grosgrain. Sometimes called Faille Francais. [See Silk.] It is soft 
in quality and has but little gloss, generally looking better in light than 
dark colors. 

FANS. — The use of the georgeous peacock fans by the attendants of 
the Pope on grand ceremonial occasions — stately and superb, and lend- 
ing their splendor to the scene, is a survival of the custom of the slave 
waving a fan before a priest of Isis, and made of feathers and painted at 
the top, a shape which the fan was adopted into Greece; a natural 
shape, representing the joining of two fowl wings, of which the fan was 
doubtless first constructed. The fans that stir the air before the rulers 
of India and China are of the same shape as noted above; but in Japan 
today, where the fan is as universal as a garment, its shape is that of 
the folding affair as we have it in this country, shutting- up into a stick. 
Whether Catharine de Medici obtained this folding shape from the East 
or not, is unknown, but at any rate she introduced it into France and 
covered it with painting and jewels. A little later one set with dia- 
monds of great cost and beauty was presented to Oueen Elizabeth of 
England (1491). Possibly the fan came into Spain from Mexico: if it 
did not its use was greatly increased with the coming- of Mexican 
wealth and dazzle, as the Emperor Montezuma had several of gold and 
the wondrous feather- work of his country, beautiful as any painting. 
But from whatever source it came, the Spanish senoretta adopted it at 



FARMER'S SATIN. 55 

once unto the armory of her attractions, and has handled it to perfec- 
tion ever since. 

If it is degraded today into the palm leaf, into the bamboo and paper 
arrangement, into the home-grown "turkey wing" or into the whirligig- 
machine set on the table to drive away flies, it does not signify that 
fans are less precious than of old; but that common people are disposed 
to be more comfortable than once they were. The tariff on fans of ev- 
ery description, except palm leaf, is 35 per cent. 

FARMER'S SATIN. — A lining for men's coats, made with cotton 
chain and wool filling, finished with a high lustre. It is called Italian 
cloth by tailors and has been surperseded to some extent in recent years 
by serge, which is a cloth with the same organization, but woven 3-leaf 
twill like cashmere, etc. 

FASHION, or as the French term it, La Mode, admits as little of an 
exact definition as of being referred to as an intelligent principle. In 
every age and in every country, there has been a recognized costume or 
general- style of male and female attire, along- with certain niceties in 
the color, shape and texture of dress, which, fluctuating according to 
taste or caprice, are known as Fashion. This whimsicality constantly 
begins and ends in two things it most abhors — singularity and vul- 
garity. It is the perpetual setting up of a certain standard of taste and 
eleg-ance formed by the prevailing distraction of the moment, and then 
disowning- it; which was yesterday ridiculous from its being- new, 
and today essentially proper, will tomorrow be odious from its be- 
ing too common. To quote the words of Hazlett, " It cannot 
be lasting, as it depends on contrast, change and shifting; it 
cannot be sterling, for if it were, it would not depend on the 
breath of caprice; it must be superficial to produce its immediate 
effect on the gaping- crowds, and frivolous to admit of its be- 
ing assumed at pleasure by those who affect to be in the fash- 
ion, to be distinguished from the rest of the world. It is not any- 
thing in itself, nor the sign of anything, except perhaps the sheer van- 
ity of those people whose very existence depends upon what others may 
think of them. It takes the firmest hold of weak, flimsj- and narrow 
minds; of those whose emptiness conceives of nothing excellent except 
it be regarded in like manner by others. Fashion is the abortive off- 
spring of vain ostentation and exclusive egotism; it is haughty, trifling, 
affected, servile, despotic, mean and ambitious, precise and fantas- 
tical all in a breath, tied to no rule and bound to conform to every rule 
of the minute." She is the arbitress of weaver and dyer, and the terror 
of wholesale and retail buyers, and yet their main dependence for prof- 
its. If stamped out of existence in a night, the next morning's sun 



56 FEATHERBONE 

would shine down on a million work people whodepend upon her for a 
livelihood. 

FEATHERBONE is a substitute For whalebone, patented in 1882, 
made from the quills of domestic fowls. The quills are slit into strips 
which are twisted, and the resultant cords are wrapped together with 
tine threads and pressed flat. [See Wu \i.kbonf..] 

FEATHER CLOTH.— This is a mixture of cloth and feathers woven 
together, the cloth being 1 undyed and is produced in drabs and grays; 
this curious material usually measures one yard and a half in width. It 
has a very unfinished appearance, as the feather ends protrude from the 
face here and there throughout, yet are woven into the web sufficiently 
well to preclude their falling- out. The cloth is naturally a warm one, 
comparatively light, and probably waterproof, without being rendered 
so by artificial means. Feather Cloth is also the name applied to a va- 
riety of extremely lightweight silk and wool material, woven with a 
basket pattern; so called, it is presumed, on account of its feathery 
lightness. 

FELT and FELTING.— Felt is a kind of cloth made without spin- 
ning- or weaving, but simply by the mutual adhesion of the scaly w^ool 
fibres. This peculiar property is most distinctive!}- developed 
in the short or "carding-" wools, but all wools possess it to some extent. 
[See Wools.] Felting properties are also found in the hair of other 
animals; the rabbit especially supplies the finer felts used for hat mak- 
ing, while the beaver hat was a felt of pure beaver fur. Felted cloth is 
made by the combined influence of heat, moisture, pressing and rubbing 
on an evenl}' spread out mass of fine carded wool. The wool is carded 
out into a lap of extreme thinness, but of a length and breadth sufficient 
for the size of the cloth to be made. Several of these carded laps are 
super-imposed on each other till the requisite thickness of the material 
is obtained, the two outside laps being made of better material than the 
bod}'. This combined lap is now passed between several pairs of rollers 
which press against each other partly immersed in a trough of water, 
the upper roller being solid and heavy, while those under are hollow and 
heated by steam. The upper rollers all have a zigzag motion, so that the 
material is crushed and felted as it passes on. This is frequently mois- 
tened with a felting preparation, and the rolling- and pressing contin- 
ued until the cloth is duly condensed and of a leathery consistency, when 
it is dyed, printed and finished like ordinary cloths. In the manufac- 
ture of cheap felt a woven cotton body is often used, and a lap of felt 
attached to each side. This can hardly be detected by examaning the 
face of the felt, but by cutting, the warp and filling- of the cotton body 
is easil v perceived. 



FICHU 57 

FICHU is the French word for ladies' neckerchief. A triangular 
piece of lace worn around the neck instead of a collar; of various 
lengths : sometimes it is a combination cape and pointed between 
the shoulders, and a scarf crossing - the bosom, the long - ends of which 
are allowed to hang loose. It was a favorite article of attire with 
Marie Antionette, of France, in 1786. 

FILOSELLE, or rilling- silk, is a loose, slackly twisted thread used 
in fine art needle work. It comes in skeins, the strands of which can 
be divided or separated into six' smaller ones, each suitable for being 
used in fancy work. 

FILLING.— That which fills up. The woof or weft in weaving. 

FLANNELETTS are napped cottons; also called Outing Flannel, 
Gypsy,. Tennis, Yachting, Seashore, etc. All these are but flannel im- 
'itations which originated with the demand for a lower price fabric of 
the flannel class. 

FLANNELS are made of "woolen" yarn, but slightly twisted in the 
spinning, the object in view being to have the cloth soft and spongy, 
without particular regard to strength. Wales appears to have been 
the home of flannels (Welsh gwlanen) and the high estimation in 
which Welsh flannels are still held is attributed to the fact that hand 
labor is nearly altogether employed in their production. The manu- 
facture of flannel is almost the same as that of other woolen goods [See 
Woolen], though there are certain wools which are used more for Flan- 
nels than for any other textiles — notably the short and curly staple 
wool of the Southdown breed of sheep, the Cottagh and Merinos. 

Flannel is recommended by medical men as clothing both in hot and 
cold countries, from its property of promoting insensible perspiration, 
which, being absorbed by the material, is immediately distributed 
equally throughout the whole thickness of the substance, and thus being 
exposed over a larger surface is carried off by the atmosphere, keeping 
the bod}' at the same time at an equal temperature. Like other woolen 
fabrics Flannels are bleached b}- the steam of burning sulphur to im- 
prove their whiteness. [See Woolen, Shaker, Tricot, Twill, Etc.] 

FLOSS SILK is an embroidery thread, or yarn, made of silk fibre, 
from the finest part of the cocoon, carded and spun; slackly twisted, 
soft and downy, and finished with a high lustre, It is adapted to a 
wide range of fancy work, as it may be used singly for fine outlines on 
light canvas, or doubled for heavier outlines or solid embroidery; very 
similar to Filoselle, q. v. 

FOULARD at first denoted a kind of thin gauze French riband; then 
a thin piece-silk, general^ printed in colored patterns on black or 
white grounds. An imitation of silk Foulard was next found in cotton. 



58 FOULARD 

printed with mingled patterns of a medium soft make, for women's 
dresses. This latter was formerly much in vogue, but its manufacture 
is now almost discontinued, having- been superseded by satteen, another 
cotton textile of satin weave, glossy, tine and strong", which answers the 
same purposes, q. v. 

FRENCH PATTERNS. --Among the weavers of Lyons, St. Etienne 
and other great weaving centers of France, much attention is devoted 
to anything in any way connected with the beautiful, either in the fig- 
ure or the color of textiles. Weavers may be seen in their holiday leis- 
ure gathering Mowers and grouping them in the most engaging com- 
binations. They are constantly suggesting new and tasteful designs to 
their employers, and are thus the fruitful source of elegant patterns. 
Hence the French flower patterns are remarkably free from incongru- 
ities, being copied from nature with scientific precision. This consti-* 
tutes the secret of French manufacturing prosperity, for so long- as 
fashion worships the beautiful enough people will be found to purchase 
the fabrics of France, even though France should be prohibited from 
purchashing those of other countries. Fashion is to France what the 
mines of Peru were to Spain, what the wheat fields of India are to Eng- 
land, what the cotton industry is to the South. 

FRIEZE. — So called from having- originally been made in Friesland, 
the most northerly province of Holland. A heavy, shaggy, curled-nap 
woolen cloth manufactured especially for men's winter overcoats. In 
1551 the British Parliament passed an act which provided that "After 
a certain Feast Day all Frieze should be made and wrought in the 
shires of Cardigan and Pembroke, ready to be sold for a whole piece, 
and should contain in length 'at the water' 36 yards and in breadth Y± 
of a yard, and be so fully wrought that every whole piece should 
weigh 48 pounds at the least, and that every half piece should contain 
the same weight at the same rate." 

The mauufacture of Frieze in Ireland has come down from time im- 
memorial. The chief features which distinguish it from all other 
cloths is its absolute imperviousness to rain and its extraordinary dura- 
bility. This pertains of course to the genuine Irish Frieze, not the 
counterleit which of late is quite plentiful in Amercan markets. The 
manufacturers of Ireland use particular care to select the longest and 
best wool from the best washed fleeces. This is first dyed and after- 
wards, when^spun, is doubled so as to resemble yarn. It is then woven, 
after which it is but through the thickensng or tucking process. This 
consists of a prolonged washing and sousing the cloth in a carefully pre- 
pared solution slowly heated up to the boiling point, and then as slowly 
cooled again. This shrinks and thickens the fabric to such an extent 
that it becomes almost impossible, after cutting the goods, to separate 



FRINGE 59 

one thread from another, so closely are they fulled and so interdepend- 
ent on each other. 

FRINGE. — An ornamental bordering- formed of short lengths of 
thread, whether loose or twisted, variously arranged and combined, 
projecting from thd edge of the material ornamented. Fringe may 
consist of the frayed or raveled edge of the piece of fabric ornamented, 
but is generally of other material attached by stitching. Gold and sil- 
ver fringe, such as now used for epaulettes, has been worn by ecclesias- 
tics as far back as history has traced the dress of people, but was not 
adopted in civil costume until the 15th century, since which time it has 
come and gone at Fashion's dictate, sometimes in the form of knotted 
and twisted silk and ag-ain as the curly chenille. It is essentially a 
creature of Fashion, depending upon her smile for its ephemeral exist- 
ence; while her frown is a token for its speedy departure. 

FROG. — An ornamental fastening for the front of a coat or ladies' 
garment originally made of metal or braiding, and consisting of a 
spindle-shaped button attached by a cord, and corresponding with a 
loop on the opposite side of the garment. A pair of frogs fixed on the 
opposite sides of the coat may allow of buttoning it either way. On 
silk plush cloaks the frogs are generally of sealskin. 

FUELING or milling is the one process which is specially applied to 
woolen goods, its results being shown in the highest degree in broadhloth 
doeskin, cheviots, meltons and other heavy cloths for overcorts. Every- 
one knows how blankets and flannels tend to contract with frequent 
washing, gaining in thickness and solidity what they lose in length and 
elasticity; such shrinkage is greatly hastened when woolen articles are 
rubbed in very hot water. This shrinkage or fulling is the result of the 
serrated, wavy structure of the wool. The operation of fulling is now 
performed by a steam fulling mill. The old method of fulling by the 
stocks is wasteful of power, and the blows the stocks give with the 
heavy wooden mallets, tend to sometimes tear and bruise the cloth, draw- 
backs from which the fulling machine is free. The cloth to be fulled is 
first well saturated with hot soap and water, and pressed and rolled and 
scoured and rubbed between the rollers of the fulling umchine, while so 
heated and soaped. The more prolonged the operation the more does 
the material shrink up and thicken, and a piece of cloth may even be 
fulled till it is reduced to half its original length and breadth. The 
amount of fulling it receives is the distinguishing feature of many va- 
rieties of cloths. In the treatment of broadcloth, doeskin, meltons, and 
all nap finished woolens the fulling is carried on so far that the fibres 
become densely matted, obliterating all appearance of the weave and 
giving the piece more the aspect of felt. Fabries to which no nap finish 



60 . FULLING 

is given are fulled only to the extent of solidifying- the substance and 
strength of the texture. Tweeds are very slightly fulled in order to give 
them a "dressed' 1 surface. On conclusion of the fulling operation the 
goods are scoured to free them from the soap, which is very simply done 
with pure water, which is tepid at first, but is gradually cooled by 
additions till in the end cloth is worked in pure cold water. [See TEAS- 
LING or Napping.] 

FUR. —Certain animals have a covering upon the skin called Fur, 
underneath a longer covering called Overhair. The fur differs from the 
oyerhair in that it is soft, silky and downy; while the overhair is straight, 
smooth and comparatively rigid. These properties of fur constitute its 
chief value for felting - purposes, which after some sligmt preparation, 
by the aid of hot water, readily unites its fibres into a strong and com- 
pact fabric. The overhairs are best managed by spinning and weaving. 

Few kinds of animals furnish a pelt of the correct weight and pliabil- 
ity without artificial assistance, and all of them differ widely in texture, 
shade and fineness; it is these differences which determine their value. 
A brief account is given here of the most used varieties of fur, with 
some general remarks as to their average value and customary uses: 

Badger. — Overhair coarse, 3 to 4 inches long, black with silver spots. 
Fur wooly; used for robes and brushes. Value of prime 75 cents per 
skin. 

Beaver. — Overhair 3 inches long - , of gray color, with reddish brown 
ends. Fur thick and fine, of a silvery gray hue or delicate lightish 
brown. Used in every form and fashion. Best are from Labrador; 
value from SI to S3 per pound. 

Chinchilla. — Overhair and fur of equal length, \y-z inches long, very 
line, and like wool may be spun and woven; color gray and black mixed. 
Best are from Peru; used for muffs, boas and borders on garments, but 
never for overcoats; value from SI to S3 per skin. 

Ermine. — Fur soft and pure white, with tip of the tail black. Best 
are from Siberia; used for muffs, garments and lining-s; value variable, 
from 13 cents to SI. 30 per skin. 

Fox, Silver. — Overhair thick and tine, 3 inches long - , varies in color 
from a pale silver to a darker hue; fur fine and curly. Its beauty places 
it at the head of all fancy furs. The choicest are from Labrador; used 
for muffs, boas, trimmings, lining's and garments by the rich. Price 
$50 to S200 per skin. 

Fox, Red. — Well known in the United States; from SI to S4 per pelt. 

Fox, Gray. -Only found in the United States. Overhair is gray, 
sprinkled with silver on the back, while the sides are yellow; value from 
SI to S2 per pelt. 



FUR 61 

Marten, American. — Overhair fine and flowing-, 1 to 2 inches long - ; 
fur close and thick; color of the best is a dark coffee brown, of the poor- 
est a pale yellow. The best are from Labrador, always a choice and 
valued pelt; price of best $10, of poorest $1. 

Marten, Russian Sable. — These skins are in the higiiest estimation 
by furriers. Overhair line and flowing - , of a rich dark shade of a bluish 
cast. The best are from Siberia; the finest bring- $150, though there 
are many grades, the poorest selling for $2. 

Mink, American. — This valuable fur vies with the Marten in elegance 
of lustre. The choicest are of a blue-black shade that is always admired 
in furs. The best are from Maine and Labrador. It is most abundant 
in the Middle and North Western States; value of the best from S3 to 
$10 per pelt. 

Muskrat. — A well known fur in the United States. Overhair coarse 
and light brown; fur fine, thick and silky. Available for a great vari- 
ety of purposes, men's winter caps especially. Best are from New En- 
gland and New York; very plenty in cultivated regions. The price is 
very fluctuating", and as the annual catch varies from 3 to 5 million 
skins, it is difficult to forecast the market value. Usual price for 
prime is from 25 to 75 cents per pelt. A variety of black Muskrats from 
Deleware and Maryland fetche double these prices. 

Nutria. — From South America, in size and value between the Beaver 
and the Muskrat. Overhair coarse and rigid; fur short and fine; pelts 
are too often unsound, and hence the value of the fur is chiefly for hats. 
Price of dry skins 25 to 50 cents per pound. 

Otter. — Comes from all Northern countries; color brown; best comes 
from Labrador and Canada; value of best from $5 to $15. 

Otter, Sea. — Found in Alaska. Overhair exceedingly fine, extending 
but little beyond the fur, which is close, thick, fine and silk}'; color is 
brown, occasional^ with silver points regularly interspersed. The 
poorest skins are not more valuable than beaver, but the fine choice 
skins command from $100 $500. They are almost exclusively used by 
the nobility of Russia. 

Rabbit Fur is largety used in the manufacture of felt hats and fur 
caps, and is plentier and cheaper than some qualities of dirt. Techni- 
cal^ called "coney" fur. 

Seal Fur. — Found only in the Pacific and south Atlantic oceans. 
Overhair coarse and rigid; fur fine thick and silky, and very uniformly 
distributed. The largest number comes from Alaska, where the United 
States government allows but 100,000 to be caught annually. Value 
varies from $5 to $15 in the salted state. A few skins are taken on var- 
ious islands in the Antarctic ocean. This fur is fine beyond comparison; 
pelts are valued from $10 to $15. 



62 FUR 

Skunk. — A peculiar production of North America. Overhair fine, 3 
inches long-; dark brown and black and white, thick, glossy and flowing-. 
Many have two white stripes, more or less broad, extending- from the 
head to the tail. It is now easy to deodorize the skin, and the fur has 
become a popular one in all countries. The best are from New York 
and Ohio. Value of best from SI to $2. 

Wolf. — The largest are from British America and northern United 
States, chiefly gray-brown in color, with long-, coarse, flowing* overhair'; 
mainly used in making robes. The Prairie wolf is a variety inferior in 
every respect. The best wolf pelts bring from $6 to $8. 

Furs are dyed in a variety of ways to make them uniform in color, 
and to adapt them to the fashion and taste of the time. Ordinarily this 
is a cheap and easy process and only becomes an art when employed 
upon fine skins, from which the overhair has been first removed by 
"plucking-," leaving- the fur alone on the skin to receive the dye stuff. 
Among these are the skins of the muskrat, beaver, otter and especially 
the seal; the last has received very careful attention, as its entire value 
depends upon the perfection of the dyeing process. Well seasoned seal 
skins part with their overhair very readily, leaving the fur in all its 
smoothness. Great care is necessary to prepare the dye of suitable 
strength, and to infuse the coloring matter into the fur without allowing 
too much of it to reach the skin, whereby its wearing qualities might 
be ruined. 

FUR BEAVER is the name applied recently to a species of heavy, 
napped muslin cloth used exclusively for men's line overcoats. This 
cloth is double-woven, with the warp in the center and a weft on each 
surface, made of the finest and most expensive qualities of wool, such as 
lamb's-wool and fine merino. The surface is finished with a line heavy 
straight nap, not rolled into tufts as is chinchilla, but brushed straight 
and all lying in the same direction. One of the principal advantages 
of Fur Bearer is that being woven of extremel}- fine merino wool it pro- 
duces a light fabric, thus preserving great warmth with very little 
weight. It has a soft oily feeling, similar to beaver fur. and is often 
finished with a short nap on the back. 

FURBELOW. — (From fur and l>doir. ) A puffed and puckered adorn- 
ment on a dress or petticoat; any elaborate ornament or cnbellishment 
of a ladies 1 costume. 

FUSTIAN.— (From Fustat, the name of a suburb of Cairo, in Egypt, 
whence the goods first came.) Formerly a stout cloth supposed to have 
been made of cotton, or cotton and flax. It was in use in England 
throughout the middle ages. In the 13th and 14th centuries priests' 
robes and women's dresses were made of it, and there were both cheap 



FUSTIAN; 63 

and costly varieties. It appears to have been worn where strength and 
durability were required, and gradually the use of it was confined to 
servants and laborers. In 1375 the name fustian was also given to a sim- 
ilar fabric woven of wool, the nap of which was sheared. 

In present use any stout, twilled cotton. fabric with a nap or pile, as 
corduroy, velveteen, beaverteen, moleskin, thickest, etc., according to 
the way it is finished. 



G 



GAITER is the English spelling of the French word guetre, originally 
meaning a "spatterdash," or cloth covering for the ankle and leg, 
spreading out at the bottom over the shoe. Also a kind of cloth shoe, 
coming up to the ankle, generally with an insertion of elastic on each 
side. 

GALLOON. — (From Italian gallone, finery, ornament.) Originally 
worsted lace, especially a closel}--woven lace, narrow ribbon or tape 
for binding. In modern use a trimming similar to the above, of wool, silk, 
tinsel, cotton or a combination of any of these; also a kind of gold or 
silver lace used on uniforms. Under the new tariff bill the import 
duty on wool g-alloons is 60 cents per pound and 60 per cent ad valorem; 
and on silk galloons but 50 per cent. 

GARTER. — An elastic band or other fastening to keep the stocking 
in place on the leg; especially a band passing around the leg, either above 
or below the knee. It is not known when they were first worn; necees- 
sity in this case must have been the mother of invention, and garters 
are probably of the same date as the hose q. v. they kept up. A vulgar 
story prevails that at a Court Ball in London King- Edward's mistress, 
commonly supposed to be the Countess of Scilisbury, allowed her garter 
to drop upon the floor near the King, who taking it up observed some of 
his courtiers to smile as if they thought he had not obtained this favor 
merely by accident, upon which he called out "Honi soil qui mal y pense." 
(Evil to him who evil thinks.) This incident is said to have given rise 
to the v 'Order of the Garter,'" the highest order of Knighthood in Great 
Britain, consisting of the King or Queen, the Prince of Wales, and fifty 
others of the bluest blood among the royalty. According to the common 
legend it was customary among the "faire ladies" of those days to drop 
her garter near the lover whom she desired to favor; if so inclined the 
lover picked it up and kept it until they met again; if not, he gracefully 
returned it then and there. [See Elastic] 



64 GAUNTLET 

GAUNTLET. — Throughout the 12th and 13th centuries, the metal 
covering for the hand attached to the iron armor worn by warriors, was 
the "gauntlet." This was at first mitten-shaped, but afterwards sepa- 
rated to contain the fingers, and continued gradually to change until 
the gauntlet was made of leather with iron pieces sewed on the palms. 
and detached from the arm covering. The word is derived from Anglo- 
Saxon guantus, signifying a glove, while gantelet is the present French 
term for glove. Gauntlets are now distinguished by being- a long stout 
glove, for use in riding and driving, loosely covering- the wrist and 
lower part of the arm. 

GAUZE is said to have been named after the place of its origin, Gaza, 
a city of Palestine, known from the ancient days as an important cloth 
weaving place. Gauze formerly always signified a silk fabric, but is a 
term now given to fabrics of soft, fine transparent texture, woven of 
either linen, cotton or silk. When applied to underwear is usually 
meant the thinnest or lightest variety. Empress Gauze is a fine trans- 
parent stuff, made of silk, or silk and linen, having a desigm usuall} T of 
a flow T er pattern woven in the silk. 

GERMANTOWN YARN received its name from the fact of having 
first been manufactured at Germantown, Penn., which city at present 
constitutes the 22d ward of Philadelphia. It is a coarse, heavy "woolen" 
yarn, extensivel}* used for knitting fancy articles of winter apparel, es- 
pecially scarfs, hoods, mittens and the like, superseded to some extent 
in recent years b} r German Knitting Worsted. 

GERMAN KNITTING WORSTED is a strong durable yarn made of 
"worsted;" that is of wool prepared by the combing process. [See Wool, 
and Worsted.] 

GIMP. — ( From French guipure, to whip round with silk.) A flat 
trimming made by twisting silk or worsted threads around a stiff found- 
ation of wire; more or less open in design, used for borders of curtains 
and furniture, trimming^ for ladies' dresses, etc. Gimped Embroidery 
is a kind of raised embroidery made with a padding of other material, 
which is entirel}' concealed by the silk or beads whipped around it; 
similar to Passamenterie q. v. 

GINGHAM derives its name from the town of its early manufacture, 
Guinghamp, France, in the Department of Cotes-du-Nord. The dis- 
tinguishing features of ginghams are that they are a close, stout, plain, 
(untwilled) cotton cloth, woven into yarn-dyed checks or stripes of two 
or more colors. It differs from calico in the circumstance that its colors 
are woven in and not printed on the cloth after weaving. In the case 
of Umbrella Ging-hams the whole piece is woven of yarn of one color. 
A great variety of designs are found in this material, the trade distinc- 



GINGHAM 65 

tion of ginghams being - now to a large extent superseded by other terms. 
Madras gingham is the name applied to a variety in which the pattern 
imitates the waved lines and simple embroidery work of Madras cloth 
and handkerchiefs. Seersucker gingham was originally a thin linen 
fabric made in the East Indies, having- blue stripes alternating with 
white ones. Zephyr gingham, as the name indicates, is a soft fine va- 
riety, usually found in small checks and plaids. Scotch and French 
ginghams are superior qualities of domestic goods. Small, square 
checked ginghams are designated as "two-by-two," "four-by-four" etc, 
which has reference to the size of the checks: the two-by-twos having- 
two white threads intersected by two threads of some other color every 
alternate time; the four-by-fours having four threads of each color, and 
the six-by-six six threads of a color crossing- each other, and so on. 
Toile du Nord is a French phrase for "Cloth of the North." Standard 
ginghams weigh about 6V4 yards to the pound, and count from 60 to 7<> 
threads to the inch. 

GLASS CLOTH is a fine linen fabric, usually woven with a slight 
open pattern of colored threads, like gingham, used originally as a towel 
for drying fine chinaware, porcelain, glass etc. 

GLOVE. — ( From Anglo-Saxon glof.) A covering for the hand, with 
a separate sheath for each finger. Gloves were not worn by either sex 
until the 11th century. Prior to that time the loose sleeves of garments 
supplied their place by being brought over the hand; long shoulder 
mantles were also made to answer the same purpose. It was formerly 
a proverb that for a glove to be good, and well made, three Kingdoms 
must contribute to it: Spain to dress the leather, France to cut it and 
England to sew it. But of late, France has appropriated the functions 
of the other two, the}- being now said to have the advantage in point of 
dressing and sewing, as much as of cutting. 

The glove industry of the present day is both extensive and diversified, 
seeing that gloves are now almost universally worn and made of various 
classes of material. Our cotton and lisle thread gloves come mainly 
from German}-. Berlin gloves were originally all imported from Berlin 
and parts of Switzerland, but are now manufactured to some extent by 
ourselves. The best woolen, thread and silk gloves are made by cutting- 
and sewing together — full regular made, — but commoner qualities are 
made to a great extent by knitting, in like manner to stockings. The 
quality of silk gloves is determined by weight and neatness of sewing, 
the bulk of which are made of Spun silk q. v. 

The leather employed by glovers is prepared from the skins of deer, 
sheep and lambs, goats and kids, the last being by far the most impor- 
tant. [The method of dressing kid and lamb skins is fully described 
under the head of Lkather.] From a kid skin the materials for three 



66 GLOVE 

gloves are obtained. The cutting- is performed 03- punches of the proper 
sizes, which are provided with a toothed apparatus somewhat resemb- 
ling a comb, which pricks the points for the stitches. The seams are 
sewed together with perfect regularity by placing the edges to be united 
between the jaws of a vice, the holding edge of which terminates in 
fine brass saw teeth one-twelfth of an inch long, between each of which 
the needle is passed in successive stitches, by hand, and in this way a 
neat uniform stitch is secured. Machine stitching- is to a small extent 
utilized in the manufacture of heavy gloves; and can be recognized on 
account of its always being the regular button-hole stitch. When the 
sewing is completed, kid gloves are placed in a linen cloth slightly damp 
and beaten, by which they are rendered softer and more flexible, and are 
then pressed and ironed. 

It is hardly necessary to inform the reader that the term "kid" is a 
mere technicality, as the quantity annually consumed of leather bearing 
this name is largely in excess of what could be supplied. It is chiefly 
made of lamb skins. A few of the finest gloves are made from real kid 
skins, obtained from those countries where goat's milk and flesh form 
main articles of food. [See Leather, Kid.] Kid is valuable in pro- 
portion to its elasticity and closeness of texture. Most of the low priced 
gloves, which are jobbed at S18. 00 per dozen and under, are in reality 
lambskin. When what is called a kid glove feels unusually stout, it 
may be considered highly probable that it is only a lambskin in imitation. 
It must consequently be understood that all good kid, in addition to the 
qualities already described, must be reasonably thin. Kid gloves are 
finished either "glace" or "suede.'" By glace is meant the bright pol- 
ished finish which has long- been in vog-ue. Suede, or "undressed," 
signifies gloves finished by removing the thin, almost transparent outer 
layer of skin, by simply peeling or shaving it off, leaving- the glove 
undressed and lustreless in appearance. Of ordinary kid gloves there 
are ten different sizes for ladies — 6}{ to 8; thirteen different sizes for 
gentlemen — 6^ to l ); for misses, the sizes are from 5)4 to 1%\ and for 
boys, the cadet sizes range from S)4 to 7%. The greatest manufactur- 
ing- center for kid gloves is Grenoble, in the south of France, where 
many thousand persons are engaged in the factories. 

Buckskin for men's gloves is prepared by the process of shamoying. 
[See LEATHER.] It is the closest g-rained and consequently the strong- 
est and best wearing gloves that are made. Its elasticity, though trifling, 
is sufficient. It may be had in white, drab or buff, all dressed in pre- 
cisely the same way that chamois skins are. 

Dogskin gloves were formerly always made of lamb or goat skin, 
never of the real canine cuticle, except in rare instances. What were 
called dogskin gloves existed only in imagination, the advertised dog- 



GLOVE 67 

skin goods being- in reality made of skins that no respectable dog- would 
recognize as ever having belonged to any inhabitant of the dog world. 
Lately, however, the difficulties of dressing have been overcome, and 
now excellent gloves are made of real dogskin, though the quantity is 
not very large. Only the finer grades are suited to street wear, the 
heavier skins being finished in oil for hard usage. 

Castor gloves have had quite a history. The word indicates the skin 
of the beaver, but the best French castor gloves were formerly made of 
thin deer skin, and were soft, durable and expensive. Latterly shaved 
sheepskin was used, but the goods were unsatisfactory, and Castor "buck" 
for awhile was in bad repute. These were in turn displaced by Ameri- 
can Castors, made of antelope skins from our Western plains. 

Mocha Castor is a new leather brought out recently. It is the skin 
of the Egyptian sheep, and is thin, very tough and durable. It can 
always be recognized by its rich, velvety appearance. An imitation of 
it is manufactured from the skins of our native sheep, but it is harsh 
and gritty compared with the genuine Mocha. 

Coltskin is a newcomer for glove purposes, and is an exceedingly fine, 
smooth leather, suitable for in or outdoor wear, often put up as "oil 
tanned buck." 

Great progress has been made in recent years in tanning sheep and 
lamb skins, and they are now rendered so elegant and so durable as to 
be practically indistinguishable from goat's leather in looks or wear. 

In the city of Gloversville N. Y. there are 140 separate glove factories, 
which manufacture over two-thirds of the entire product of men's heavy 
gloves in the United States. [ For Tariff see Index.] 

GOLOSHES. — (From Spanish Golaeha, wooden shoe.) The general 
term used for either lined or unlined rubber foot-wear. The process of 
making goloshes consists first in placing the raw india rubber q. v. into 
water in order to soften it and to remove dirt and other impurities; it is 
then put into a machine which tears it into very small pieces. Still 
warm and somewhat adhesive in consequence, these small fragments 
are quickly spread out into a thick sheet, which travels between the 
rollers one inch apart; the rollers press the fragments together and they 
adhere slightly in the form of a thick blanket — two feet wide and six 
feet long. These sheets are next dried and passed between large hollow 
steel rollers heated with steam internally, which compress the material 
into thin soft sheets. The chemical materials (sulphur, etc.,) are now 
added, and sheets are folded up and kneaded well together. This 
kneading process is performed by passing it several times through the 
hot rollers, folding it after each, and rolling it into a dough-like mass. 
When this operation is completed it is finally rolled out into thin sheets^ 
several yards in length, which are reeled off on cold rollers, so as to 



<„s GOLOSHES 

allow cooling 1 . It is then ready to be cut up into "uppers" for the 
cheapest kind of rubbers, which are unlined. The better grades are 
lined with cotton cloth of different colors, and sometimes with other 
materials, as felt. The lining is made fast to the rubber sheet by pass- 
ing the piece of cloth throug-h the rollers simultaneously with the rub- 
ber in the last process, a firm adhesion of the two being- effected by the 
heat and moisture. Another machine is so constructed that it produces 
a sheet thick enough for the soles, and on one surface a roughening is 
made by engraved lines crossing each other to prevent the soles from 
slipping in wet weather. Another ingenious pressure forms the heels. 
After the sheets for the uppers and heels haye been cooled and reeled 
i)\\\ they pass through the cutting machines and are here cut in different 
sizes and shapes. Some cut out the inside linings and the outside 
tippers for fronts and heel stepping, while others with great nicety cut 
the heeled soles out. These various parts are now taken to the 
'-makers," usually females, and the cast iron "last" is rapidly covered 
over with the different pieces, beginning with the lining and insole, the 
edges of which are cemented with a composition containing gutta- 
percha, which produces a firm adhesion. The sole is then fitted on 
with equal facility, and the workman then runs a wheel-tool round the 
edg-e and other parts to produce the representation of "seam" marks. 
They are next coated with a varnish which quickly hardens, and are 
then transferred to vulcanizing ovens where they are submitted to a 
high degree of heat, which produces a chemical union between the rub- 
ber and other materials mixed with it at the beginning of the opera- 
tions. When taken from the oven they are removed to the packing 
room, where the}" are boxed and shipped. [See Artics, Alaskas, India 
Rubber, Mackintosh. 

GOSSAMER. — A contraction of "Godsummer, " is the name given 
by our superstitious ancestry to the fine filmy cobwebs which float in the 
air in summer time; so called because these flying webs were considered 
as being the shreds and remnants of the Virgin Mary's shroud which 
she dropped to earth on her ascension to heaven. The name now 
denotes a thin filmy silk veil, made of soft g-auze; also any lig-ht airy 
material; specifically, a thin water proof outer wrap, especially for 
women. 

GRENADINE is a French word meaning "wrought silk for making- 
lace." Grenadine dress fabric was formerly made of pure silk, woven 
in small square meshes or open work, in imitation of certain varieties of 
lace. At present it is a transparent silk, wool or cotton fabric for ladies 
summer dresses, having a kind of square mesh or open check made of 
coarse-like threads. 



GROS DES INDES 69 

GROS DES INDES is a silk fabric having- a stripe, either of the same 
or different color worn diagonally across the web. 

GROS DES NAPLES is a stout, plain woven silk dress fabric made 
of thrown organzine silk q. v., in the weaving- of which great care and 
labor is bestowed, hence one of the most durable silk fabrics. 

GROS DES TOURS is a heavy corded black silk used for mourning 
purposes. 

GROSGRAIN is from gros, thick, and grain, grain,— thick grain 
showing conclusively the origin of the word and the manner of fabrics 
they should be. Grosgrain dress fabric was not at first woven of all 
silk, but with a heavy .mohair filling and a silk warp, and was of very 
close grain or texture. At present it is a firm, close-woven, fine-corded 
or grained, pure silk fabric, finished with but a very slight lustre. TSee 

SlIvK.] 

GUERNSEY is a close-fitting knitted woolen shirt, much worn by 
seamen; sometimes called a guernsey frock; similar to a cardigan jacket 
or jersey, except that it is longer; besides being exceptionally com- 
fortable for rongh out-door weather, it covers a multitude of deficiencies 
m underwear. So-called from having been first worn by the sailors 
inhabiting the island of Guernsey, in the English channel. TSee 
Jersey.] 

GUIPURE is a French word which means vellum lace. ■ "Vellum" 
means "parchment," and parchment means sheep-skin, tanned and 
bleached white fit for writing on. "Cartisane" is another French word 
signifying a long thin strip of this thin parchment or vellum . rolled 
round and completely covered with twisted silk; and to make guipure 
lace these cartisanes were formed into a pattern and held together by 
stitches called "brides" or "bars," worked with the needl?. These 
cords or cartisanes were either arranged so as to. touch one another and 
be sewed together often enough for solidity,or were attached toother in 
the form of some figure by the brides or bars. In later use & o- u i pure 
means any lace made in imitation of the ancient guipure; also any lace 
having no ground or mesh, but maintained bv brides only. In this 
sense it is used very loosely. [See Lace.] 

GUNNY.— This name is applied to cloth or bags made of jute 
originally manufactured in Bengal, India, but at present the industry is 
centered at Dundee, Scotland, modern machinery having supplanted the 
hand work of the Hindoos to a great extent. In lower Bengal the 
manufacture of this bagging is still a great domestic industry "in th- 
over populous districts. It pervades all classes and gives occupation to 
men, women and children. Boatmen employ themselves weavino- it in 



70 GUNNY 

their spare moments, husbandmen, carriers and even domestic servants. 
being Hindoos, for Mohammedans spin cotton only. It forms the never 
failing- resource and occupation of that most humble, patient and 
despised of created beings, the Hindoo widow, saved by law from the 
sacrifice, but condemned by opinion and custom for the remainder of 
her davs to sackcloth and ashes, and the lowest domestic drudgen T in 
the very household where once, perhaps, her will was law. Hence the 
very low prices at which gunny bags are sold. Of recent years, how- 
ever. American and English trusts have purchased the raw Jute, or the 
material after it is spun, and shipped it to Dundee and the United 
States, where it is now largely woven. It is made in several different 
qualities, and used for sugar, coffee and rice sacks, burlaps, furniture 
wrapping, backing for floor oilcloths and most important of all, for 
wrapping the bales of cotton in the South. As each bale requires seven 
yards of gunny cloth, and the annual product of cotton in this country 
being* between six and seven million bales, the consumption of gunny 
for this purpose alone is very great. The tariff on Jute butts is $5.00 
per ton and 19 per cent advalorem; on Burlaps 30 per cent; on gunny 
cloth valued at 10 cents per square yard the tariff is 3 cents per pound 
and 30 per cent advalorem; over 10 cents per square } r ard, 4 cents and 
40 per cent; valued at 7 cents or less per square yard lj4 cents per 
pound and 54 per cent; on backing for floor oilcloth 40 per cent adva- 
lorem. [See Jute.] 

GUTTA-PERCHA — Is not India rubber as many imagine; the chief 
difference lies in its being less elastic than rubber. It is obtained from 
the juice of an evergreen tree, common in the jungles of the Malay pen- 
insula. It is a yellowish, inodorous and tasteless substance, nearly in- 
elastic at ordinary temperature, hard and tough and flexible only in 
thin plates. Gutta-percha is used for insulating electric wires, hose, 
belting, combs and other flexible goods, and also as a substitute for 
leather. Crude Gutta-percha comes in free of duty, but manufactured 
articles are subject to 35 per cent advalorem. 



H 



HABERDASHER is derived from Habt ihr das, a German phrase for 
"have you this?" In the 15th century there were two classes of Haber- 
dashers, "those who dealt in small wares, tape, thread, pins, trumpery 
and riffraff." and those who dealt in hats and caps exclusively. At 
present the term implies a dealer in gents' furnishing goods and hats. 



HAIR CLOTH 71 

HAIR CLOTH is a woven fabric of horse hair. The hair used for 
weaving- it consists of the long- hair from horses' tails. It is procured 
principally from South America and Russia. All the black and grav 
hair is dyed for the manufacture of black hair cloth for covering- furni- 
ture. The white is reserved for dying of the brig-hter hues, such as 
green, claret, crimson, etc. The quality of the cloth as well as the 
brilliancy and permanency of the colors depend in a great degree on the 
nature of the warp, which may be either cotton, linen or worsted. In 
the manufacture of hair cloth, either plain or damasked, the weaver 
uses a sort of hook-shuttle which he passes between the threads of the 
warp or shed toward the left hand; the assistant or server, places a 
single hair over the end of the hook, and the weaver draws it through 
the warp. The placing of the hairs one by one renders this a tedious 
operation, and one that does not admit of the application of machinerv, 
which is so advantageous where the shot or weft consists of a continu- 
ous thread. An imitation of hair cloth is made by the use of hard- 
twisted and highly gummed and polished cotton threads. The duty on 
hair cloth known as crinoline cloth is 8 cents per square yard; on hair 
cloth known as hair seating - 30 cents per square yard. 

HAIR NETS have been used in various forms from the earliest times. 
Once they were known as cauls; at another time crespine denoted a hair 
net made of crape; at present in France they are called crespinetts. 

HANDKERCHIEF. — The most ancient handkerchief was merely a bit 
of silk tissue, first used many centuries ag-o by priests at the altar. For 
many years, indeed, priests were the only persons in the European world 
allowed to use handkerchiefs at all, and they used them only at the altar 
for the sake of propriety. It was then called a "facial" and was left with 
the vestments of worship when the service was done. Presently the 
grand ladies of the Court began to provide themselves with similar 
squares of silk, and "maids and gentlewomen g-ave to their favourites,, 
as tokens of their love, little handkerchiefs of about three or four inches 
square, and the gentlemen wore them in their hats as favours of their 
mistresses." The next step was to embroider the edg-e of these squares. 
Soon their convenience recommended them so hig-hly that all the ladies 
and gentlemen connected with the various European courts adopted their 
use. The fashion thus introduced by royalty was soon adopted by the 
under ranks, till today the handkerchief is an indispensable article of 
apparel. 

HANK. — A skein or coil of yarn or thread. More particularly a def- 
inite length of yarn, of cotton, linen, silk or wool. A hank of cotton is 
840 yards; a hank of linen in 3,000 yards. Silk is not numbered on the 
principle of cotton and linen. The fineness of silk yarn is determined 



72 HANK 

by constant length with variable weight, whereas other yarns are indi- 
cated by constant weight with variable length. The original standard 
3 ii of silk was 12,467 yards, 6 inches, the numbers being the weight 
in deniers of 26 grains. The number is ascertained by the weight of 
ards, 6 inches, in grains. 1-24 of a denier of a hank containing 
ds, 20 inches. Spun silk is numbered on a different principle. 
It is determired by the cotton standard, the number of skeins of- 840 
Is each to the pound making a hank. Woolen and worsted yarns 
are also -.lumbered in the same manner. 

HASSOCK. — A thick hard cushion used as a foot stool; from hassock, 
a bushy bunch of grass. 

HATS. — As now made, felted hats are of three different kinds, plain 
soft, plain hard and napped or "ruffed" felts. There is a great range 
in quality, the finest and most expensive being made entirely of fur; for 
commoner qualities a mixture of fur and Saxony wool <>r lamb's wool is 
used; and for the lowest grades wool alone is employed. "Hatter's 
fur" consists principally of the hair of rabbits, with some proportion of 
nutria and beaver's fur [See Fur] ; and generally any parings and cut- 
tings from furriers are also used. Furs intended for felting- are treated 
to a solution of nitrate of mercury, whereby the felting properties are 
greatly increased. The fur is then cut by a machine from the skin and 
in this state is delivered to the hat maker. An all fur hat may be re- 
garded as the highest achievement of the hatter. An outline of the 
operations by which a fur hat was formerly made will give an idea of 
the manual processes, though at present machines are employed to do a 
larsre part of the work. The materials of a fur hat consist of a body 
or foundation of rabbits' fur, and for the nap pure beaver fur. The 
requisite quantity of this is taken and the whole heated up as in the 
case of the rabbit fur, until it adheres together in a thin lap. This 
"nap" is then laid over the "body" and b} T moistening and gently pat- 
ting with a brush the cut ends of the hair penetrate and fix themselves 
into the felt body. The blocking, dyeing and finishing processes in the 
case of fur hats are similar to those emplo}'ed in ordinary felts, except 
that greater dexterity is required on the part of the workman. The 
nap must be laid on in one direction and rendered smooth and glossy by 
repeated wettings, ironings and brushings. 

Ordinary Felt Hats of part fur and wool are made substantially by 
the same process as fur hats, machines being substituted for hand work. 
The body of Wool Hats is prepared by first carding- the wool. On be- 
ing delivered from the cards the wool "slivers" are wound around a 
conica'. block of wood, which revolvos slowly with a reciprocating mo- 
tion, so that there is a continual crossing and recrossing of the wool as 



HATS 73 

it is wound around the block. This diagonal winding- is an essential 
feature of a wool hat, as thereby the strength is made equal in every 
direction. When this mat has been wound around the block to the re- 
quired thickness it is placed over a perforated iron plate through which 
steam is blown. When well moistened and heated they are placed be- 
tween boards and subjected to a hard rubbing - , to enable them to bear 
the subsequent strong felting operations. This is done by machinery, 
in some cases a form of fulling mill is used; but in all cases heat, mois- 
ture, pressure, rubbing and turning" are the agences for felting a wool 
hat. Next follows blocking and shaping as in case of fur hats. 

Silk Hats consist of a light stiff "body" covered with a plush q. v. of 
silk, the manufacture of which in a brilliant, glossy condition is the 
most important part of the industry. Originally the bodies were made 
of felt and cork, but now calico is almost exclusively used. The calico 
is first stiffened with a varnish of shellac and then cut into three 
pieces, sufficient for crown, side and brim. The side-piece is wound 
round a wooden hat block and its edg-es joined by hot ironing; the crown 
piece being put on in a similar manner and attached at the top. The 
brim, consisting of three thicknesses of the sized calico cemented to- 
gether, is now slipped over and brought to its position, and thereafter 
a second side piece and another crown are cemented on. The whole 
"body" now receives a coat of size, and subsequently is varnished over; 
then it is ready for the operation of covering. In covering this body 
the under brim, generally of merino, is first attached, then the upper 
brim, and lastly the plush crown and side piece sewed tog-ether and 
drawn over. All these by hot ironing and stretching are drawn smooth 
and tight, and as the varnish on the "body" softens with the heat ap- 
plied, "body" and cover adhere all over to each other without wrinkle 
or pucker. Dressing and polishing by means of damping, brushing and 
ironing come next. The brim is then only to be curled and bound, the 
linings inserted and the hat is ready for use. The qualit}^ of silk hats 
depends altogether upon the quality of silk plush with which they are 
covered. It is a curious fact that this silk plush is all imported from 
France. A g-ood workman can prepare and iron a dozen "bodies" daily. 
He can put the silk coverings on and finish about ten, while the brims 
of fully two dozen ought to curled daily by a good hand. "Stovepipes" 
are never made up in larger quantities than are needed for the market, 
as styles change twice a year, aud when a hat has gone out of style it 
is absolutely valuless. If, however, only the brims change, they can 
be reshaped by heating and curling. 

The silk hat originated in the United States, and was introduced into 
Europe by Benjamin Franklin. When Franklin was sent to Paris in 
1790, he wore the simple attire of the Quakers. A prominent feature 



74 HATS 

of this was the hat, which has narrowed and heightened into the 
fashionable "plug-" of today. It was then low crowned and broad- 
brimmed and presented so quaint an aspect that the Parisian dandies 
were disposed to make it the butt of their wit. Not so, however, with 
the leaders of the French revolution, who happened to take a fancy to 
the queer shaped hat, and forthwith adopted it as their own. In three 
days' time the Franklin hat, as it was called, was the rage in Paris. and 
from that time — just 100 years ago — the tile has grown in favor, although 
it is probable that a contrivance more destructive to the hair and more 
useless for practical purposes was never invented. 

Straw Hats. — Staw plaiting is one of the oldest arts practiced by 
mankind, many specimens having been found in the tombs of the an- 
cient Eg} T ptians, and mention being made by Herodotus and other early 
writers. In Europe it remained in a comparatively rude state down to 
the end of the 16th century, when it attained commercial importance in 
France and northern Italy. The Leg-horn straw of Italy began to ac- 
quire celebrity late in the 18th century. It is still unsurpassed for 
beauty and durability. Leg-horn is a variety of wheat grown solely for 
the straw, which is distinguished for its extreme slenderness and white- 
ness; all of our supply is imported under a tariff of 20 per cent. 

Panama Straw Hats are made from the leaves of the screw pine in 
Central America, and are called Panama on account of the city of that 
name being the principle point from which the straw is shipped. The 
green leaves of this screw pine are g-athered before they unfold and 
after the ribs and coarse veins have been removed, are cut into shreds. 
These are exposed to the sun a few days, and then immersed in boiling- 
water until they become white when they are hung- up in the shade and 
bleached for several days. This gives the straw about the color of lime. 
A native can plait enough straw for a hat in two or three days, but the 
finest hats occupy several weeks to complete them, and require especial 
care in the selection of the straws and plaiting. Good qualities of Pan- 
ama hats retail for $25.00. 

Manilla Hats are made of the split stems of the manilla tree, a native 
of the Phillipine Islands. These hats rank next to Panama in point of 
durability. 

Mackinaw is the name applied to hats made from whole bleached 
wheat, oat, or rye straw. They are plaited by hand and sewed by ma- 
chinery. 

HEMP is a native of India, but has long- been naturalized in many 
parts of the world, notably Russia, Brazil and Eg}'pt. The fibre of this 
plant constitutes the hemp of commerce. It is obtained in this country 
by dew-rotting. After the hemp has been cut down with cradles, it is 
spread upon the ground in October or a month or two later according- to 



HENRIETTA 75 

climate; after undergoing- the action of dew and frost for about two 
months, the lint readily separated from the stalk. Hemp is tough and 
strong- and is peculiarly adapted for weaving into course fabrics such as 
sail-cloth, and twisting into ropes and cables and binding twine. The 
tariff on raw hemp is $25 per ton and 17 per cent ad valorem; on manu- 
factured, 35 per cent. 

HENRIETTA dress fabric was named in honor of the gay and brill- 
iant Henrietta Maria, Queen of England in 1624, and notwithstanding 
the revival of its popularity during the past few years, its origin in Eng- 
land dates back into the 17th century; though the prominent position 
Fashion has at present given it among fine dress goods would lead many 
to imagine it a new-comer. 

Formerly Henrietta was a fine black dress fabric, made with silk warp 
and the finest of worsted weft [See Worsted] , but at present is to a 
larger extent made of all wool. It is woven with a twilled face and a 
a plain back, and is like cashmere in all other respects except the finish, — 
being more lustrous. This lustre is due to the fact that after weaving 
Henrietta undergoes an elaborate processs of "finishing," consisting first 
of scouring it with hot soapsuds and stretching it on a frame to dr}-, and 
also to carefully examine the whole web for the removal of burrs and 
knots from the texture. Next the cloth is cropped to remove the tips of 
projecting fibres which were raised in weaving and scouring. To produce 
the lustre it is now wound tightly around a huge drum and boiled for three 
hours in water, heated at 180 degrees F. It is then unwound and the 
ends reversed, and again boiled for three hours. Finally it is pressed in 
a hydraulic press, in which the cloth is heated either by inserting hot 
iron plates between the folds, or by forcing steam through it while in 
the press, the last process adding to the smoothness of the cloth and 
developing the lustre characteristic of a well finished Henrietta. 

HERRINGBONE is a style of twill weaving, so called from its re- 
semblance to the backbone or a herring. This particular weave consists 
of a series of very short diagonal lines running the entire length or width 
of the cloth, contrasting with another series turned in an opposite direction, 
each series arranged alternately, so as to form a continuous zigzag pattern. 

HICKORY CHECKS .denote a particular style of shirting, in which 
the checks are made small and square, and of but two colors, usually 
blue and white or, brown and white The name was originally given by 
some manufacturer to a special brand, from its supposed "toughness" or 
superior wearing qualities. 

HOLLAND, that now is in use for window curtains, was at one time 
a pure linen fabric, J^one grade of which was manufactured especially for 



7'. HOME WEAVING 

line shirts, collars etc. Until the beginning- of the 19th century most 
of the linens worn in England and France were sent to Holland to be 
bleached, on account of the bleaching- greens occupying so much valu- 
able land in the former countries. For this reason this particular kind 
ived the name of Holland. Through competition it gradually came 
to be a coarser and more heavily sized material, and with the develop- 
ment of cotton ceased to be used lor its former purposes, and entered 
the department of upholstery. By and by it met the same fate which 
so man\- originally linen fabrics have met, the manufacturers substitut- 
ing 'cotton, but retaining the former name. At present it is an un- 
bleached, heavily-sized linen or cotton fabric, made in many places, but 
especially in Scotland; in width from 24 ]to 115 inches, and all con- 
ceivable colors. 

HOME WEAVING. — There was a time in the early history of our 
countrv when the hardy pioneer clothed and furnitured his family with 
the products of his own fields and loom — clothed them with better 
woolens and better linens at less cost than can be bought in the Home 
or Foreign market at the present day. At the time of which we speak, 
the power loom was not yet invented, and the hand loom factories were 
scarce and at long- distances from the settlements. If an article of 
apparel specially fine was desired, it could only be secured from New 
York or Baltimore and transported over the mountains and across the 
winding rivers upon the back of a pack horse. Money was scarce; the 
distance was great, and the path to the sea-board rough and dangerous; 
hence arose the necessity of Home Weaving. 

With a hand loom in its simplest form, the wife and daug-hters of the 
household would take the yarns prepared at home, and weave such 
cloth or articles as their condition and circumstances required. For 
downright durability the cassimere and janes, the table linen, coverlets 
and "butternut" of this Home Weaving- have never been equalled. 

The country being- sparsely settled and families living- far apart, our 
forefathers could hardly want any other clothing or furnishings than 
that which real necessity demanded. Modern Fashion had not yet 
siezed and claimed them for her own. As the new country gradually 
increased in population, farming along with other classes of business 
began to assume a more specific and limited form. With the building 
of towns the settler found that the sawing of his trees into lumber, and 
the clearing away of his forests for the production of stock and grain 
a profitable employment. His time had become limited in which to 
prepare the yarns for his weavers. It was tedious and toilsome work to 
prepare the linen, with always more or less delay and uncertainty con- 
nected with harvesting, flailing, breaking, swingling, heckling, carding* 
and spinning of the flax. In the early days in heavily timbered portions 






HOME WEAVING 77 

of the country much time was also consumed in the shearing - , washing - , 
scouring, carding and spinning which was necessary in preparing the 
woolen yarn. The entering wedge to the breaking up and final aban- 
donment of home weaving was the establishing of carding mills in 
county* neighborhoods. These mills would take the farmer's wool, and 
with improved machinery card it for him while he waited. By and by 
the mills both carded and spun the wool, the operation of weaving still 
being performed at home. However, with new inventions for the pro- 
duction of cotton materials, which came to almost entirely supersede 
linen, and the great improvements made in weaving processes, finally 
culminating in the power loom, by which cloth was made in a greater 
variety of patterns, and in so much less time than with their hand looms, 
these country mills came in time to manufacture all sorts of cloths, 
yarns, blankets and flannels, and to exchange them with the farmer for 
his raw wool. These were termed "factor}'" goods to distinguish them 
from "homespun." 

The Jacquard loom is used solely for weaving - figured goods. In this 
loom a chain of perforated cards is made to pass over a drum, and the 
strings by which the threads of the warp are raised pass over an edge 
with a wire or leadened weight of small diameter suspended from each. 
These weights at each stroke of the loom are presented to each succes- 
sive card, and some of them are intercepted by the card while others 
pass through the holes therein, the latter thus determining which 
threads of the warp shall be raised. In this way the figure of the card 
determines the nature of the figure on the fabric. 

HOOD. — Properly a covering for the head, but frequently worn in 
modern times as an ornament for the back of cloaks and wraps. It is the 
most ancient of head coverings, and comes from the Anglo-Saxon hod, 
head; whence comes also our word hat. 

HOOK AND EYE. — A metal fastening for garments, consisting of a 
hook, commonly made of flattened wire bent to the required shape, and 
an eye of the same material, into which the hook fits. Under the name 
crochet and loop, this form of fastening was in use in England as early as 
the fpurteenth century. In this country all the hooks and eyes are made 
in New England, where until a few years ago they were fastened together 
and sewed on the cards by children at five cents per gross. 

HOOPS, OR HOOPSKIRTS were evoluted from the farthingale of 
the, 16th century, and we are told that the first woman who wore a far- 
thingale was desirous of concealing the fruits of indiscreet love. They 
were made of hoops of whalebone run into a cloth foundation, and the 
s%le reached the greatest degree and inconvenience about 1610, when 
they were immense, ridiculous and cylindrical in form*" Charles IX. 



78 HOSIERY 

of France forbid women to wear farthing-ales more than an ell and a 
half in circumference, but this naturally caused the dimensions of these 
articles to increase more and more. Finally the fashion died out in 
1675. Hoopskirts next came into fashion in the form of bell-shaped 
skirts, which were enormously expanded by wire hoops fastened at cer- 
tain intervals upon the skirt. The time of its greatest extravagance 
was from 1750 to 1800, and continued with some intermissions until 
about 1820. Then there was a cessation and hoopskirts slumbered 
until 1852, when they were again revived in the form of crinoline petti- 
coats q. v., for which were soon substituted hoops composed at first of 
rattan, but afterwards of flat flexible steel wire, which at times wore 
nearly as large as those of a century earlier; they went out of use again 
in 1870, but since 1880 have appeared spasmodically in the form of til- 
ters or hoops at different periods. 

HOSIERY. — Under this head is embraced a wide range of manufac- 
tured textiles, which are classed together more on account of their 
manner of fabrication than from similarity of use. The term as is 
quite obvious, has its origin in hose or stockings; but although stock- 
ings continue to be one of the staples of hosien*, that department is only 
one of a great number constituting the entire industry, there being not 
fewer than 5,000 distinct articles made in the trade. All kinds of 
hosier}- proper are made by the process of knitting, the peculiarity of 
which consists in the use of a single thread for the entire texture, and 
in the formation therewith of a singularly elastic yet strong and firm 
looped web. Hand knitting was first invented in Scotland in 1482, 
while the first knitting machine or stocking frame was invented in 
England by William Lee in 1589. These were introduced into the 
United States in 1832 at Cohoes, N. Y. These machines simply pro- 
duced a straight knitted strip which was cut off in proper lengths and 
seamed together to form the stocking". A great improvement upon 
this was the circular loom, in which a continuous circular web is knit 
of any lenth, which is cut up and "formed" or pressed into the shape of 
a stocking-. The shaping of the web to fit the foot is a matter of no 
little ingenuity. The flat web is knit in long strips of sufficient width 
to make several stockings, w-hich are cut out over patterns on stretch- 
ing boards, and neatly united at the heel and around its edges by ha.nd 
knitting or machine sewing. In the case of " full regular *' goods the 
edges of the web are connected by hand, the loops on either side being 
so neatly taken up and joined as to leave no welt whatever and but 
slight evidence of a seam. In forming the foot to the circular web, a 
slit is made just above where the heel is to be, half across the web, 
which allows the part designed for the foot being curved up at the in- 
step and to assume the natural shape. The loops along the edges of 



HOSIERY 79 

the cut are then taken up on hand needles and the space for the heel is 
filled out by hand knitting-, In the same manner the toe is completed, 
and thus the stocking- is completed without a seam. On other circular 
machine the entire stocking is knitted and then dampened and pressed 
into proper form. 

A clever hand knitter, if assiduous, will knit 100 loops a minute,, 
while the improved machine knitters will knit of the finest textures in 
various colors 250,000 loops per minute— an advance of 25, 000-fold upon 
the hand knitter. 

A new automatic machine has just been patented which will knit a 
stocking from beginning to end with out stopping, and with no more 
attetion than the starting of the web. When the stocking is finished 
the machine stops automatically, breaks the thread and is again ready 
for the next. One boy can tend half a dozen of these. It also over- 
comes all difficulties in the narrowing part of the instep and ankle, and 
by a narrowing and widening process — hitherto never accomplished on 
any machine — will make several different styles of heel and toe. 

In the 16th century the term "hose" was the term applied to the 
tights worn by Englishmen; these extended from the waist to the toes. 
By and by when the large puffs around the hips and thighs came into 
use, the name of stocking or nether stock, was assigned to the lower part 
of the tights. In the progress of time the loose puffs extended lower 
down on the legs and were termed "breeches" q. v., and so the old and 
long used word "hose" came to be retained only as an equivalent for 
stockings. In present use (as either singular or plural ) hose donotes. a 
covering for the lower part of the leg, extending to the knee, while 
short stockings are called half hose or socks q. v. British' hose are so- 
called from the fact of their having been originally imported from Eng- 
land. It is particularly distinguished by being a firm, stout-made hose 
stained a yellow color which does not fade nor bleach out. • 

HOUSEWIFE CLOTH.— A linen cloth of medium fineness, used for 
family purposes in general. In very limited demand at present, having 
made way for cotton upon the hitter's introduction at the close of the 
18th century. 

HUCKABACK is a corruption of "huckster-back," which originally 
meant any sort of "peddler's ware." A coarse and very durable cloth of 
linen, or linen and cotton, woven with alternate elevations and depres- 
sions so as to have a rough face. It is used especially for towels, and is 
made in separate towels or in lengths which may be cut at will. Often 
shortened to hurl: At present largely made of cotton, woven with a 
hone} T -comb pattern. 



80 ILLUSION 



ILLUSION.— Silk bobbinet. [See Tuiab.] 

INDIA LINON. — A variety of clear white lawn, put up book-fold. 
It is woven of very fine selected cotton yarns; the chief difference between 
India Linon and Victoria lawn q. v. is that the former is a somewhat 
lighter weight fabric, and having- a greater number of counts per inch. 

INDIA RUBBER consists of the dried, coagulated, milky juice of 
various trees and shrubs found in India and Central and South America. 
This juice is contained chiefly in the middle layer of the bark, in a net- 
work of minute tubes, and in its natural state is of a pale yellow color, 
of the thickness of cream. The natives tap the trees in the morning's 
and during the day half a pint of the fluid is received in a clay cup 
placed at the trunk. This at once begins to harden, which is hastened 
b} r exposure to the smoke and heat of a fire, and thus the substance ac- 
quires its ordinary black color. The crude rubber, as it hardens, is then 
made into the form of balls or shapeless lumps, in which condition it is 
received in this country by the rubber factories. At the factory this 
lump is first placed in a vat of boiling water and softened, next sent to 
the masticating machine, where it is ground up very fine and mixed 
with sulphur After being several times passed through this machine, 
which is built on the principle of a "sausage grinder," it is worked 
through heavy smooth rollers under an enormous pressure, which packs 
it together in the form of a mat. This mat is then thoroughly dried, 
which requires from four to six weeks. Next it is passed through a 
series of very hot rollers, until it is sufficiently pliable to admit of being 
spread upon cotton cloth. This operation is performed between two 
iron cylinders, the pliable rubber being run in over one and the cloth 
over the other, the hea\w weight forcing- it thoroughl}- into the meshes 
of the cloth. In this manner rubber, or rubber cloth, of any desired 
thickness can be produced by regulating the distance between the iron 
cylinders — from the thin g-ossamer tissue to a heavy boot sole. [See 
Goloshes and Mackintosh.] 

The remarkable substance known as india-rubber is composed of car- 
bon and hydrogen alone, but its exact chemical nature is not by any 
means known with certainty. It was long used for various minor pur- 
poses before its valuable commercial qualities were appreciated. The 
French in 1751 first gave the matter particular attention, and in 1797 
England issued a patent for making- waterproof clothing; in 1825 a 



INDIA SILK 81 

merchant of Boston introduced the original Para overshoe in its rough 
state, as made by the Indians in the province of Para, Brazil, S. A., and 
soon caused an improvement in its shape bj sending- the native shoe- 
makers American lasts. In 1833 crude rubber began to be shipped to 
New York, and rubber boots and shoes were first made in this country 
in that year. To Chas. Goodyear is due the credit of having devoted 
much time and money in experiments and improvements in the manu- 
facture of rubber goods, and although he reaped no pecuniary reward 
from his patents, and although the French and English stole outright 
his invention of the vulcanizing process, and their courts showed the 
greatest partiality and dishonesty in deciding against him, yet all coun- 
tries and all consumers are indebted to Chas. Goodyear for bringing the 
manufacture of rubber to its present state of perfection. 

INDIA SILKS. — Among the many varieties of silks manufactured in 
India five may be more especially designated as entering more or less 
extensively our markets. "India silks are classed as 'cultivated' and the 
'wild.' Among- the former are imported the Corah, Mysore, Nagpore and 
Rumchunder; and from the latter categorj-, or 'wild silks,' the Tusore, 
otherwise called Tusah and Tusar. There is also that called the Moonga, 
a superior description of silk of the same class, but employed in the trade 
with Arabia. The Kincobs are satin textiles decorated with designs in 
gold flowers, and are employed for ladies' skirts; the Mushroos have a 
surface of silk, but a cotton back, and are decorated with loom embroid- 
ered flowers; the silk brocades are very beautiful, and are chiefly man- 
ufactured at Trichinopoly. Those brocades with the white silk flowers 
are from the Deccan, though usually for sale in Madras. The most costly 
examples of India brocaded silks are massively embroidered with gold 
and with silk stripes; the costliest of all, produced at Hyderabad, are 
very striking in appearance having wavy stripes of rich yellow pink and 
white combined with gold. Silk stuff manufactured for trousering for 
home wear is said to be produced of the slightest texture, nine yards of 
some of which would scarcely weigh as many ounces. 

INDIGO is a well known and exceedingly valuable blue dyeing ma- 
terial. The substance has been in use in Europe from an early period, 
being mentioned by Pliny as Indicum; when it made its appearance in 
England it was termed Indico. As a commercial material indigo is en- 
tirely obtained from the vegetable plant called Indigofera, which grows 
from 4 to 5 feet high, having bipinnate leaves. It is in the leaves that 
the indigo-yielding- principle chiefly resides, and these are most gorged 
with it at the period when the flower buds are about to open. It is then 
that the plant is cut down, in India the same stock yielding in one vear 
the second and even the third crop of stems and leaves. The principal 
method of preparing indigo in Bengal, where ths best quality is made, 



82 INDIGO BLUE 

is to take the fresh green stems and leaves and beat and bruise them, 
after which they are fermented in vats of water, depositing - a blue sub- 
stance which is collected and dried in the form of cubic cakes seen in 
commerce. The different qualities of indigo which come to market are 
classified according to their sources, as follows: Bengal, Guatemala, 
Java, Mexico and Brazil, on all of which there is a tariff of ten per cent. 
The most important of all coloring matters is indigo, both as regards 
the large quantity and the monetary value of what is produced and sold, 
and the permanence of the dye colors which it yields. Indigo is distin- 
guished from nearly all other coloring matters by its complete insolu- 
bility in water; the only real solvent for it is acetic acid mixed with a 
little sulphuric acid, from which water precipitates it unchanged, but 
this solvent is inapplicable for dyeing. Complete solubility is an essen- 
tial condition for dyeing, and a means was found to obtain satisfactory 
solutions of indigo by circuitous methods which involve the temporary 
destruction os its blue color and a change of its ehemiceii composition. 
By various deoxidizing agents, indigo blue is changed into a white 
substance ( indigo-white) which dissolves readily in all alkaline liquids, 
forming a colorless or slightly yellow solution. On exposure to the air 
the solution yields the insoluable blue indigo, and permanently dyes any 
libre which has been saturated with it. This is the only case in which 
such a method of dyeing is followed, and on that account it possesses 
much interest. The number of successive dips that a piece of cloth un- 
dergoes varies according to the shade of blue which the dyer desires. 
The more "dips" the more permanent the color becomes and darker the 
shade. 

INDIGO BLUE PRINTS.— This fine blue color is produced by plac- 
ing in an immense vat 2000 gallons of water, 20 pounds of ground indigo, 
30 pounds of iron filings, 30 pounds of powdered zinc and 30 pounds of 
lime. A length of calico is then dipped into the vat for fifteen minutes, 
taken out and exposed to the air for five minutes; the piece of calico, 
which is white when it comes out of the vat, gradually becomes green 
.and then blue, owing to the oxygen of the air oxidizing the white- 
indigo and forming it into blue, which is insoluable in water and "fixed" 
on the calico. The number of dips the cloth receives is owing to the 
particular shade of blue the printer requires. 

Patterns on indigo blue prints are produced by discharging the blue 
with a bleaching liquor. The pattern to be discharged is cut out on 
two metal plates; several thicknesses of cloth is placed between these 
plates and an immense pressure applied, the liquor being run in on the 
uppermost plate, which is grooved to receive it. The pressure on the 
cloth makes clean work by preventing the spreading of tne liquor, 
and the liquor destroys the blue color in all those parts where the pat 



INFLUENCE OF LIGHT 83 

terns in the plates allow it to circulate, thus producing- the white figure. 
If any other color than white is desired, it only remains to print it on 
over the white pattern that has been discharged from the blue g-round. 

The chemical liquor used to discharge the blue color (in order to make 
the white pattern) is sometimes very injurious to the cloth, the dis- 
charged portions rotting and wearing out much sooner than the solid 
blue ground. [See Calico, Bandanna, Turkey Red and Indigo.] 

INFLUENCE OF LIGHT ON DYED COLORS.— The chemical ac- 
tivity of the sun's rays is well known, and certain unstable solutions 
seem to be decomposed and precipitated more readily under the influence 
of light. It is not surprising, therefore, to find that light should also 
have a very marked effect upon dyed colors. Under the prolonged in- 
fluence of light and air almost all colors fade, and according to their rel- 
ative behavior in this respect they are broadly divided into- two classes 
namely those which are "fast to light" and those which are "not fast 
to light." Each of the seven colored rays of the spectrum possesses a 
different fading power. White light is the most active, then follow the 
yellow, blue, green, orange, violet, indigo and red rays. Direct sunlight 
is more energ-etic than diffused daylight. The light of the electric arc 
acts in the same sense as sunlight, but is less powerful. 

According to the best authorities on colors, the presence of oxyg-en and 
moisture assists very materially in the fading action of light, so that even 
some fugitive colors, dyed, for example, with safflower, annatto, orchid 
do not fade if exposed to light in dry oxygen, or in vacuo. 

The term "fast color" generally implies that the color in question re- 
sists the fading action of light, but it may also imply that it is affected 
by washing with soap and water, or by the action of acids and alkalis 
etc. In its wide sense it means that the color is not affected by any of 
those influences to which it is destined to be submitted, but its techni- 
cal influence is often restricted. 

Many colors may be fairly fast to washing with soap and water and 
yet be very fugitive toward light; or they may be fast to light, and yet 
very sensitive to the action of acids or alkalis. 

The term "loose color" generally implies that the color is much im- 
poverished, or even entirely removed, bj* washing- with water or a solu- 
tion of soap; it may, however, also mean that it is not fast to light. 

The word "permanent" as applied to color, generally denotes that it 
is fast to light and other natural influences. 

A "fugitive color" is generally understood to be one which is not fast 
to light, or which volatises more or less under the influences of heat. 

In the absence, then, of any definite meaning being attached to the 
above terms, it becomes imperative in speaking of the fastness of a 
color, to refer especially to the particular influence which it does or 
does not resist. 



84 ITALIAN CLOTH 

ITALIAN CLOTH was at one time called Venitian cloth. It is a 
kind of wool and cotton jean, satin woven, and dyed black, similar in 
appearance to Farmer's Satin. It is used as lining- for men's coats, also 
for womens' petticoats, and measures one yard in width. The tariff on 
Italian cloth and Farmers' satin is 8 cents per square yard and 50 per cent 
ad valorem. 



J 



JACQUARD, Jean-Marie, the inventor of the apparatus which bears 
his name. This is not a loom, but an appendage to looms which me- 
chanically selects the warp threads and raises them when necessary. 
The invention has been applied to many branches of weaving, and has 
worked wonderful improvement in all. Jacquard was the son of a poor 
silk weaver of Lyons, and was born in 1752. He was first employed as a 
bookbinder, afterwards as a type founder and cutter; but on the death 
of his mother he assisted his father in weaving - , and finally, when he 
inherited a small patrimony on his father's death, he used it in setting- 
up a silk manufactory. This proved unsuccessful, mainly because his 
time was spent in attempting various improvements in the processes 
with which he was acquainted. The machine which afterwards ren- 
dered him famous is said to have been conceived in 1790, but its execu- 
tion was delayed by the breaking- out of the Revolution, which drove 
him into the ranks, first of the insurgents, and then those of the army of 
the Rhine. He saw in an Engdish newspaper that a Society of Arts 
had offered a prize to any one who should invent a plan for weaving - nets 
by machinery. He set his wits to work, and, for his own amusement, 
soon produced a loom adapted to the purpose, but he made no attempt to 
obtain the the reward, and, after showing - his invention to a friend, put 
it aside, and for some time it was forgotten by him. To his suprise, 
he was one day sent for b}- the prefect of the department, who inquired 
about the machine, and requested him to make another, the original 
having been lost or destroyed. That he did, and a few weeks later he 
was summoned to Paris and introduced to Bonapart. 'Are you the man, 
asked Carnot, minister, 'who pretends to do what God Almighty cannot 
do — tie a knot in a stretched string?' Jacquard answered that he could 
do, not what God could not do. but what God had taught him to do. He 
explained his device to the Emperor, who rewarded him with a pension 
of a thousand crowns, gave him employment in the Conservatoire des 
Arts, and, while thus enabling him to exercise his ingenuity in other 
ways, encouraged the adoption of the excellent Jacquard loom. That 



JACQUARD -85 

however, was almost more than imperial patronage could effect." The 
Conseil des Prud'hommes, who are appointed to watch over the interests of 
the Lyonese trade, broke up his machine in the public Place: 'the iron 
(to use his own expression) was sold for iron — the wood for wood, and he, 
its inventor, was delivered over to universal ignominy.' The invention 
was too valuable not to have found its way into other countries, which, 
by its means, were enabled to rival, and even surpass, the products of the 
French loom. Then it was that the Lyonese weavers saw the folly of 
their opposition, and condescended to adopt the invention of the man 
they had so cruelly persecuted. The Jacquard apparatus is now exten- 
sivel}- employed through the whole" of the silk, worsted, and muslin 
manufactuaring districts of France and England. A short time ago a 
French manufacturing* firm produced one of the most extraordinary 
specimens of silk weaving that has probably ever been executed. It is 
a portrait of Jacquard, representing that extarordinary man in his work- 
shop, surrounded by his implements, and planning the construction of 
that beautiful machinery which now, in its increased prefection, returns 
this testimony to the genius of its inventor.' This work was woven 
with such truth and delicacy as to resemble a fine line engraving. 
There were a thousand threads in each square inch, French, in both the 
warp and the weft." Jacquard died in 1834. 

JACONET is a plain woven cotton fabric, somewhat heavier than 
linen cambric, having a glazed surface on one side, and slightly sized with 
pure starch. 

JEAN is generally regarded to have derived its name from the town 
of Jaen, Spain. Originally it was a sort of light weight twilled fustian 
q. v. At present it denotes a 3-leaf twilled cotton cloth, calendered 
with a gloss, used principally for waist lining. 

Jeans has the same orig-in as the above, though commonly used in the 
plural. Much of the "homespun" manufactured in this country, par- 
ticularly throughout the South, in the early days was jeans. At present 
it varies exceedingly as to quality, ranging - from all cotton up through 
many gradations to all wool; always twilled and usually found with 
cotton warp and wool filling; the best selling variety is termed "doeskin 
janes." 

JERSEY. — So called from Jersey, one of the channel islands of Great 
Britain. The state of New Jersey was named in 1664 after this same 
island. At one time the inhabitants of Jersey spun a fine worsted yarn 
of select wool of their own raising, and sold it in England for weaving 
purposes. Jersey Cloth is woolen stockinet, and Jersey Flannel is a 
fabric much resembling - stockinet, but finished with a long and soft. nap 
on one side. A Jersey is a close fitting upper garment or sacque, made 



86 JERSEY 

of elastic woolen or silk material, and worn with some variation of form 
by both men and women for the past 20<> years. Jersey and Guernsey 
were names originally given to woven, close fitting vests of coarse wool 
or worsted, worn by sailors and fishermen in place of jackets, or under 
their pea-jackets and waterproof blouses. The}" were afterward adapted 
for athletic and other sports, and finally by women, especially the Jersey. 
which was knitted entire ( without seams ) at first, but subsequent v 
woven of stockinet and also of silk, cotton and woolen yarn. The 
Jersey was first manufactured for the g-eneral market by a firm in the 
Isle of Wight, England. 

JUTE is a vegetable fibre which notwithstanding the fact that it has 
come under the notice of manufacturers only within very recent times. 
has advanced in importance with such rapid strides that it now occupies 
among- vegetable fibres a position in the manufacturing scale inferior 
only to cotton and flax. It is mainly cultivated in Bengal, India, whence 
comes the great mass of the jute of commerce, 60,000 tons per year being 
exported. Jute likes a warm moist climate, and could be successfully 
raised in our Southern States, but for the lack of sufficiently cheap labor 
for separating the fibre. The inner fibre is separated from the outer hull 
of the stalk b} T the process of retting practiced in the case of flax and 
hemp. The stalks of jute are placed in vats of warm water till the outer 
hull rots and partially falls to pieces, which action requires from ten 
da}'s to a month. The native Hindoo then wades into the water up to 
his middle and takes as man}- stalks as he can g-rasp, and removing a 
small portion of the outer bark from the ends next to the roots, he strips 
off the dead hull from end, to end with a little manag-ement without 
breaking the fibre; then it is washed off and cleaned by swinging- it 
around his head and dashing it repeatedly against the surface of the water . 
Next it is dried, the fibre separated and is then ready for shipment to 
Dundee, Scotland, or the United States, to be spun and woven. An acre 
of ground produces from 15 to 25 hundred weight of jute. Jute is of in- 
ferior quality for ropes, as it does not endure moisture well, but is man- 
ufactured in vast quantities for gunny bags, paper, burlaps etc. The 
tariff on jute is*$5 per ton and 19 per cent ad valorem. (See Gunny, i 



KAMPTULICON 87 



K 



KAMPTULICON is a variety of floor cloth which was invented about 
1843. The materials and processes employed in its manufacture vary 
considerably, but it is essentially a preparation of india rubber masti- 
cated up with ground cork, the preparation and mixture being- effected 
by repeated passing of the material between grooved rollers. When 
thoroughly mixed it is rolled out into sheets, sometimes over a backing of 
canvas by passing it between pairs of wide and heavy steam-heated 
rollers. In addition to the substances above mentioned, gutta percha, 
saw-dust, ground leather, boiled oil, resins, pitch, asphalt, and chalk 
have all been used in Kamptulicon making. The rolled sheets are orna- 
mented by printing simple patterns on their surface. Kamptulicon forms 
a warm, pleasant, soft and noiseless floor cloth, but the higher qualities, 
in which india-rubber and ground cork are the main ingredients, are 
rather expensive, and the manufacture has been curtailed since the intro- 
duction of linoleum q. v. 

KERSEY indicates either of two very different materials used for 
men's clothing. 1. Kersey is a compact woolen fabric fulled to a degree 
completely concealing the warp and weft threads, with the surface after- 
wards finished with a very short and extremely fine nap, highly lustrous, 
dyed in solid colors; similar in weight to a melton cloth. Its name is 
attributed to the manufacture having originated at the village of Kersey, 
Suffolk Co., England in 1051. 2. Kersey is also the name applied to a 
coarse diagonally ribbed, or twilled wool and cotton cloth used for men's 
cheap clothing; usually black and white or brown and white in color. 
This name is a corruption of coarse-sa;/. Sa}- cloth was in the 17th cen- 
tury a kind of coarse serge, made of all wool and of a shaggy appearance. 

KERSEYMERE is. a twilled, fine woolen cloth of peculiar texture, one 
thread of the warp being always above, and two threads each of weft. 
It is of two thicknesses, or double woven (See Weaving) and is reduced 
in width b}^ the process of fulling from 34 inches to 27 inches. It is light 
and pliable. The name is derived from the locality of the original man- 
ufacture, on the "-mere" or brook which runs throuhg- the village of 
Kersey, Suffolk county, England. 

KILT. — (Prom Irish celt, clothes.) In the garb of old Gaul the Kilt 
was called a fillibeg-. It is said that a kilt was first made by an English 
tailor sent to Scotland in 1727 to make the clothing of some soldiers 
stationed there. While calling upon the manager of some mines near 



88 KILT 

Inverness, his interview was rudely interrupted by a Highlander run- 
ning in to lake shelter from a heavy shower. The tailor, concerned to 
see him stand in his drenched condition, suggested that he should change 
his clothing but was told that it was the custom there to wear but the 
one long garment, tied at the waist, hence he could not remove it with- 
out being entirely naked. The tailor suggested a change but was met 
with the objection that the Highlanders prided themselves on their 
manner of arranging the lower part of their loose garment. The tailor 
then offered to imitate the folds and pleats and sew them permanently 
with the needle, so that the skirt should lie of more service by being- sep- 
arated; ami thus the kilt is said to have originated. In modern times it 
is still a sort of petticoat reaching from the waist nearly to the knees, 
usually composed of some plaid material and deeply pleated. 

KNICKERBOCKER is the term applied to the early Dutch settlers of 
New York, made famers by Washington Irving. The name has come 
to be applied to anything regarded as characteristic of Dutch New York 
at the time of its early settlement. Thus the loose knee breeches repre- 
sented as worn by the early Dutch settlers are known as Knickerbock- 
ers. This name is also applied to a stout fabric originally made of lin- 
en warp and woolen weft having- a rough knotted surface, used for wom- 
en's dresses. At present it designates the weave more particularly, as 
Knickerbocker is made of man}- different materials, though principally of 
all cotton. Knots or bunches are formed in the filling- at reg-ular inter- 
vals, which when woven up appear on the surface of the fabric, produc- 
ing- rough spots or points; largely in use as a cheap winter dress goods. 

KNITTING COTTON.— A loosely twisted cotton thread, used for 
darning purposes, the making of hose, tidies and other fancy articles. 
It is numbered from 8 coarse to 20 fine. Knitting- cotton comes put up 
10 balls to the box, each box containing two pounds I S balls to the pound. ) 

KNITTING NEEDLES are sold at wholesale by the gross, the sizes 
varying from 10 coarse to 17 line, with usually a rise in prise of ten cents 
per size. ^See Needles.) 

KNITTING SILK comes put up in half-ounce balls, all colors, in two 
sizes, 300 coarse and 500 fine. Each ball of No. 300 contains 150 yards 
of silk and No. 500 contains 250 yards. No. 30® is equivalent to size E E 
in embroidery silk. It is made of both "spuu">nd "reeled" silk. See 
SlLK. • The latter is a strong and elastic thread with a high degree of 
metalic lustre. Spun silk beingmade from "waste" or imperfect-cocoons 
that cannot he reeled, is carded and spun like cotton, hence the thread 
has a dead, lustreless, spongy appearance. 



LACE 89 



L 



LACE. — (From Italian laecio, noose, snare, string-.) An ornamental 
fabric of linen, cotton or silk thread, made either by the hands or with 
machinery. The manufacture of lace by hand is an operation of exceed- 
ing- nicety, and requires skill and patience of no ordinary kind, the best 
productions of this fabric surpassing all other textile materials in cost- 
liness and beauty. Whether the ancients really had any knowledge of 
lace making is not known; but there is every reason to suppose that 
point-lace, the oldest variety known was the work of the nuns during 
the latter half of the 14th century. It will readily be supposed that an 
art depending so much on individual skill and taste, would vary exceed- 
ing-ly; nevertheless, all the varieties resolve themselves into a few well 
marked groups under three distinct classes, viz: Guipure, or Needle- 
point lace, Pillow case lace, and machine-made lace. ■ The first class is 
the Guipure, or the true needle-worked lace, whether ancient or modern. 
This needle-point lace is made wholly with the needle by hand. A pat- 
tern is first drawn, usually upon parchment; to ihis parchment is stitched 
a stout peice of linen, the heavy threads forming the outline of the pat- 
tern are then laid along the main lines of the pattern on the parchment 
and sewed lighth^ down. Then the whole design is carried out, both 
solid filling and openwork, with delicate stitching, chief lv in the button- 
hole stitch. Its varieties are Rose point, in which the figures are in 
highrelief, having an embossed appearance; Venetian-point, Portugese- 
point, point a' Alencon and Brussels-point, in which the pattern is flatter 
than in Rose-point. Alencon is the most important of these, it beini^- 
the fine lace of the 18th centmy and made entirely in small pieces and 
afterward sewed together with invisible seams. It derives its name from 
Alencon France; Argentan lace is usually indistinguishable from Alen- 
con, but often bolder and larger in pattern; Brussels lace has a vervfine 
'ground net ( SEE bobbinet. ) and a pattern of less relief than Alencon. 
The thread used for this lace is of flax and of extraordinarv. fineness. 
The finest quality is spun in dark, underground rooms, to avoid the dry 
air which causes the minute thread to break; to secure light a single beam 
is admitted and directed upon the work. It is-the fineness of the thread, 
as well as the delicacy of the workmanship which has given to the best 
Brussels lace such celebrity and rendered it so costly. It is often sold 
at $1200 a pound, and has been mentioned as high as $2500. In the old 
Brussels lace the design was worked in with the ground. At the pres- 
ent time it is especially an applique-lace the pattern being first made on 
the pillow by bobbins and afterwards sewed on to a ground with a needle 



90 LACE 

In trade the name is often given to very fine laces, n<> matter where made 
or of what pattern; Dieppe lace resembles Valenciennes, and is made at 
Dieppe France. It has a regular ground of squares, upon which ground 
the usually very simple pattern was applied in close-stitch or close- work. 
Mirecourt lace in the 17th century was a variety of Guipure, more delicate 
and thin in texture than other Guipure; at the present day an applique- 
lace, made of sprigs of bobbin lace sewed upon grouds often made else- 
where; Saxony lace was tine drawn work embroidered with the needle. 
greatl}- in favor in the 18th century; in modern times lace of many kinds 
made in Saxony, especially in imitation of old Brussels. 

.The second large class is Pillow-Lace, sometimes called Bobbin-lace 
or Bone-lace. This lace is made on a small pillow or cushion, both 
pattern and mesh being- formed by hand without the use of a needle, but 
by twisting and plaiting the threads tog-ether by the use of small bone 
bobbins. The various threads of which the lace is made are each wound 
upon a bobbin, and the pattern having been lirst drawn in pencil upon 
paper, is attached to the pillow or cushion; pins are next stuck in at 
regular intervals m the lines of the pattern, and the threads of the bob- 
bins twisted or plaited around them so as to form the net-work arrange- 
ment which is characteristic of this class of lace. In Pillow-lace making 
the number of bobbins is generally equal to 50 to the square inch. If 
the lace be one inch wide it will have 625 meshes to the square inch, or 
22,500 in a } r ard. The work, therefore, goes on very slowly, though 
generally performed with the greatest dexterity. The varieties are: 
Antwerp lace, which resembles early Aleucon, a so called pot is intro- 
duced into the design — that is, a semblance of a vase or basket constantly 
repeated; Applique lace is made by sewing flowers or sprigs, which may 
be needle-made or bobbin-made, upon a bobbin-lace ground; Arras is 
a white lace made at Arras, France, ver}- strong and inexpensive because 
of the simplicity of the pattern; Aurillac lace is made at Aurillac, in 
France. It was originally a close woven, solid lace, having much pat- 
tern in the mesh and resembling- Guipure; Auvergne lace is made at 
Auvergne, France. It is very commonly a pure bobbin-lace, but of 
many different makes and patterns, as nearly all of the celebrated 
needle-point laces are imitated in this region. Bayeux lace is made at 
Bayeux, in Normandy; it is a close imitation of Rose-point; the Baveux 
pattern is also made in black silk lace, much in demand because made 
in unusually large pieces, as for shawls, fichus, etc.; Chantilly lace is a 
kind of Blond-lace, of which the popular sort has a ground of heavy 
mesh or net, and the flowers of the pattern in openwork instead of solid 
or matted. It is made of non-lustrous silk throug-hout, so that black 
lace of this kind is often taken for Thread lace; Blonde was originallv 
a heavy lace made of unbleached silk, from the yellowish color of which 



LACE . 91 

the name arose, but now of white, black and colored silk, manufactured 
at Chantilly, France; Duchesse lace was originally made in Belgium; 
this lace is characterized by a great deal of raised work, flying patterns 
and the like, which are used in the somewhat similar Honiton laces; 
Honiton lace was first made in Honiton, England, Devonshire county, 
and is remarkable for the beauty of its figures and sprigs. Honiton Ap- 
plique is made by working sprays, flowers and other parts of a pattern 
on the lace pillow, and securing them by needle to a net ground made 
separately. In modern manufacture hand-made sprays are often sewed 
upon a machine made ground; Honiton Guipure is a lace of large flower 
patterns, with a very open g-round, which is generally sold under the 
name of Honiton lace; Mechlin lace has the pattern outlined by a flat 
cord or band, very narrow but distinct. It is usually made in one piece, 
pattern and g-round together. The ground is sometimes a mesh or net, 
and when of this character the pattern is more varied, sometimes being 
formed of "brides", or connecting links. Mechlin has been called the 
prettiest of laces. It is fine and transparent, and is best adapted to 
summer use, being- most effective when worn over colors. Its distin- 
guishing feature is the thread which outlines the flower, and gives to 
the lace somewhat the character of embroidery; Valenciennes is a very 
durable lace, always distinguished b} T having the same size and kind of 
thread throughout, for both ground and pattern; the thread being ex- 
tremely fine. 

Machine Made lace has worked a complete revolution in the lace trade, 
so that the prices formerly obtained for hand-made laces can no longer 
be commanded, whilst machine lace of great beauty has become so cheap 
and plenty as to be worn by all classes. The lace machine is so compli- 
cated it would be hopeless to convey any reallv intelligible idea of it 
without a voluminous description of all its parts. One or two points of 
chief importance may, however, remove any difficulty in understanding- 
its g-eneral principles. In the loom there are a series of warp threads 
placed straight up and down instead of horizontally, and about wide 
enough apart to admit of a twenty-five cent piece passing edgeways be- 
tween them. Behind these threads is a corresponding row of flat bob- 
bins, resting on a bolt-bar. These are so placed that with the first move- 
ment of the machine each bobbin, which carries its thread with it, passes 
between two of the warp threads, and is lodged in another and similar 
bolt-bar in front of the warp. But this front bolt-bar, besides a backward 
and forward motion, has another movement called shogging — from right 
to left. When it receives a bobbin by its forward motion, it draws back, 
bringing- the bobbin and thread through two of the upright warp threads; 
it then sh ogs or moves to one side, and g-oes forward again, taking the 
hread through the text two warp-threads and lodging the bobbin on the 



92 LACE 

bolt-bar again, one distance beyond its last space; this it recovers by the 
next movement and it again passes through the first space, to be again 
received bv the front bolt-bar. k>y these movements the bobbbin-thread 
is twisted quite around one upright thread of the warp; another move- 
ment then shifts the bobbin, so that it will pass through the next pair of 
Upright threads, and so carry on its work, the warp-threads moving at 
the same time. There are twice as many bobbins as there are threads 
of warp, each bolt-bar having a set which it exchanges with the other, 
and all being regulated with such nicety, that a width of lace is made in 
far less time that is required to write this short description. Almost 
any pattern of hand-made lace may be imitated by machine, each pat- 
tern depending upon the variations that can be given to movements of 
the flat disc-like bobbins. 

Cluny lace is a kind of net-lace in which the stitch is darned upon a 
square-net background. The patterns are usually antique and quaint, 
old fashioned birds and flowers; a glazed thread is sometimes introduced 
in the pattern as an outline or center line; Ecru is a modern lace made 
with two kinds of thread, one plain and the other wound or crinkled, 
and worked into large and prominent patterns with bars or brides of 
thread.. The name is derived from the common use of materials of ecru 
color; Spanish silk lace, was originally a needle-point lace brought from 
the convents of Spain. The patterns are usually confined to simple sprigs 
and flowers, made in close overshot or matted work; Thread lace is made 
of linen thread, which distinguishes it from silk laces, such as blond and 
modern cotton laces; Torchon is a coarse, scalloped lace made of stout 
and rather soft and loosely twisted thread. In parts of Europe largely 
made by hand, but that sold in this country is made by machinery. 
Crewel lace is a kind of edging made of crewel or worsted thread in- 
tended as a border or binding for garments. Vandyke, which comes in 
cream and black silk, is a combination of light and heavy scroll patterns, 
in the ordinary double twisted hand-run mesh; the pattern is always 
outlined by a silken thread. Guipure, in the well known black silk lace. 
has an open and gimp-like mesh, and is made of heavy sewing silk; the 
figures are usually in set patterns, such as stars and triangles, the lace 
being bordered by a feather edge, and a shading of finer mesh. Oriental 
lace is made in all colors; the mesh is round ami formed of close Brussels 
net. on which the pattern, usually roses, fern leaves and vines is worked. 
The edge is scolloped and in some cases more heavily embroidered than 
in ordinary lace; Escurial or Vichy has a mesh which is sometimes 
formed of large open squares and diamonds, and is sometimes close and 
line; the designs are of roses, tulip*, leaves etc., outlined by a silken cord 
of glossy finish, a peculiarity in all cases distingaiish the Escurial from 
other hand-run laces. Spanish Matlasse is a silk lace, the mesh of which 



LACE 93 

is a medium weight of Brussels net; the design though usually in rose 
pattern, varies considerably, and in many cases ferns and scrollwork are 
used; the pattern is always outlined by a thread which in the best makes 
is always more glossy than in the cheaper qualities. Spanish Over- 
shot is formed after the pattern of the Matlasse with the addition of a 
loose thread worked over the top of the design; it is the cheapest of the 
Spanish laces. Spanish Guipure has a Guipure q. v. mesh, already 
described being open, irregular, and crossed with small loops or brides; 
the designs are the same as in Matlasse and Overshot. 

LADIES' CLOTH is the title by which is distinguished a class of 
fine, wide flannels, used for making ladie's light weight wraps and 
dresses. Ladies' cloth is the best and most expensive description of 
flannels, being woven of superior wool and rarely, if ever, adulterated 
with an admixture of cotton; ordinarily 56 "inches in width. 

LAMBREQUIN has passed through; several stages of evolution to 
reach the particular place it at present tills among dry goods. In me- 
dieval times lambrequin was a piece of cloth worn by a knight over his 
helmet, for protection from heat and dust. Next it is found in archi- 
tecture and painting, and the lower edge of lambrequins in such decora- 
tions is always represented as jagged or scalloped, but consisting of 
graceful outlines suggestive of the lambrequin floating from a knight's 
helmet. At present the word indicates a piece of textile fabric, or 
leather, hanging by one of its edges, and having the opposite edge 
slitted, scolloped or otherwise cut in an ornamental manner. In uphol- 
stery a sort of curtain covering the upper part of an opening, as a door 
or window, and af ten forming a fancy cornice to the curtain proper. 

LASTING is a contraction of everlasting. A stout, closely-woven 
worsted cloth used for covering buttons, making ladies' shoes and 
gaiters, etc., dyed black. It is woven with a double warp and a single 
weft, twilled. 

LAVENTINE is the name of a cheap thin silk used for sleeve 
linings. 

LAWN in 1423, when first woven, was a tine, thin linen fabric, much 
used for kerchiefs, niching and for the sleeves and other parts of the 
dress of bishops of the Angelican church. By some authorities the 
word is said to have been derived from the town of Laon, France, near 
Cambray, which gave the name to Cambric. It is well known that fab- 
rics frequently take their names from the place where they first ac- 
quired excellence, and retain them long after the local manufacture has 
been transferred elsewhere. Chamber's Encyclopaedia, however, states 
that fine, light linens received the name of "lawn" on account of hav- 
ing been spread out upon the smooth, grassy lawns to bleach, instead of 



94 LAWN 

on coarse and more ordinary grass— which is probably the correct origin 
of the term, as exposure in the open air to the action of sunlight and 
moisture was the only known method of bleaching linen at that period. 
Lawn at present is a thin open cambric, slightly sized with pure starch, 
used for many purposes, but mainly for ladies' summer dresses; applied 
in the trade to various line sheer muslins; found in both linen and cot- 
ton, printed fancy and solid colors. Linon is the French word for lawn. 
Cobweb Lawn, as the name indicates, is a fine, gauzy variety. Cypress 
Cloth was the name formerly applied to black lawn for mourning pur- 
pose^: at one time was identical with black cotton crape, so called on 
account of cypress branches having been anciently used at funeral-, as 
emblems of mourning. Victoria Lawn is white cotton lawn made in 
many qualities, named in honor of Victoria, Queen of the English. 

LEATHER. — Since the day that Adam and Eve exchanged fig leaves 

for furs, the human animal has had a habit of clothing himself in the 
integument stripped from his dumb brothers. Where or when hides 
were first converted into leather no wise man ever pretends to know. 
Doubtless the process was evolved, not invented. Leather antedates the 
earliest records, and no savage tribe has yet been found ignorant of some 
way to dress skins. American Indians are masters of the art; rude as are 
their processes the product is far ahead of the white man, the buckskin of 
their moccasins, leggins and so on being a positive luxury to the touch, 
so soft and pliant it is. Neat cattle furnish hides for more than half of 
the world's leather. Next to them come goats, and after them sheep 
and East India buffalo. Horse hides are inconsiderable in amount and 
of low value. Pigskin used for saddles and heavy gdoves is in limited 
demand.. Dog-skin and ratskin for gloves are mere items of account, not 
at all equal to the kangaroo skin, which has quite superseded some grades 
of calf , while deer hides furnish glove leather as well as for a variety <»t' 
other purposes. 

Our home supply of hides is far below the demand, in spite of all the 
the cattle upon our 10,000 hills, not to mention the plains of Texas and 
the ranches of the west. Old Mexico furnishes us with many steer and 
goat hides, and ranks next to South America, whence comes two-thirds 
of <>ur supply. In 1889 New York alone imported over 36,000,000 worth 
<>f hides. Tli.? heaviest, consequently the best of hides come from South 
America. They weigh i iver 20 pounds each, and fetch 1 ( * cents per pound. 
These all go for sole leather and machine belts. Cowskins and those 
from young animals furnish the "Kip" leather of commerce, while the 
hides of animals a year old or under furnish the many varieties of calfskin. 
For cheap work both kip and calf are often split — that is divided by 
machinery into two sheets, each by courtesy called leather. It will wear 
for a day. or a week, but is about the most unsatisfactory investment the 



LEATHER 95 

bargain seeker can make. 

Oak bark, hemlock bark, and the powered leaves of sumach are the 
things that supply tanning-. 

Oak tanned leather may be distinguished by its being almost colorless, 
or a very light shade of tan, and sometimes nearly white. It fetches a 
cent or two more per pound than any other kinds, and is invariably used 
when a leather of peculiar strength and toughness is required. 

Hemlock tan makes a leather hard and brittle, and imports to it a red 
color, which latter is against it as far as appearances are concerned. 
The bulk of leather is of this tanning, as it is cheaper. 

Sumach makes leather almost as light as oak, gives some fimness, and 
makes it soft and pliable. 

Once through the vats the heavy hides are washed again, and scraped 
anew on the flesh side, curried with tanners oil, whose source is those 
cod livers that are not fresh enough for medicine; then steam dried, 
pressed between hot rollers and sent to market the "sides of sole leather" 
that everybody knows. Kip' skins go through much the same process, 
only less so. Being thinner it requires less time and care. More chem- 
icals, too, are used in tanning it, and when finished much of it is blacked 
read}- for the boot or shoe makes. Nearly all of the finest calf skins are 
. are imported from France, owing to the fact that the bark of the ever- 
green oak peculiar to that country, gives the leather a peculiar softness 
and fineness of grain not produced by the oak bark of America. 

Alligator. — Since I860 leather has been tanned from the skins of the 
Alligator, principally procured in Florida, and the tanning a considerable 
industry at Jacksonville. The parts of the skin used for leather are the 
belly and flanks, and these portions are steeped in lime and tanned by 
any of the processes above mentioned. 

Kangaroo Leather. — So popular has this become in the past eight 
or ten years, that the Australian government which began by offering 
bounties for Kang-aroo scalps, have now decreed a close season, six months 
long each year, to prevent the extermination of the animal. Its skin 
comes to this country via Calcutta, and furnishes a leather pleasant 
enough to the foot, but liable to stretch out of all shape if wet and not 
carefully dried. These skins are both tanned and tawed, the principal 
tanning- agent being the mimosa bark which abounds in Australia. The 
leather is very similar in appearance and texture to fine goat. 

Russia Leather was originally, as the name implies, a specialty of 
Russia, where it was made from the hides of young cattle, and dressed 
either brownish red or black color, being used for "upper" leather, book- 
bindings, purses and similar objects. Russia leather is now made through 
out Europe and the United States. Horsehide, and calf, goat and even 
"splits" are now finished as Russia leather; but most of these are decid- 



96 LEATHER 

edly inferior in quality, and. as they arc merely treated with birch bark 
dye to give them the odor by which Russia leather is recognised, they 
scarce deserve the name under which they pass. Genuine Russia leather 
is tanned like other light leathers, except that willow bark or spruce fir 
bark is used. After tanning- and scouring, the skins are treated on the 
flesh side with an empyreumatic oil obtaned by the dry distillation of 
birch tree bark and buds, to which the peculiar smell of the leather is due. 
The brownish-red color commonly seen in Russia leather is given by 
dyeing with a preparation Of brazil wood rubbed over the grain side with 
a sponge. Black colored Russia leather owes its color to repeated stain- 
ings with acetate of iron. The leather if genuine is very water-tight 
and strong, and owing to its impregnation with empyreumatic oil, it 
wards off the attack of insects. 

Morocco. — Originally morocco leather was a product of the Levant 
and Turkey, and even at the present time in the City of Morocco there 
are 1,500 men employed in its manufacture. Formerly all this leather 
was made of goat skins tanned with sumach, and finished either in 
black or bright colors. Now, in addition to the genuine morocco made 
of goat skins we have imitation moroccos, for which split calf and es- 
pecially sheep skins are employed. As the appearance of morocco is 
the result of the style of graining (a sort of '.'crape", or goat grain), it 
can be artificially produced on any kind of thin leather properly 
tanned. 

The preparation of skins for morocco leather must be conducted with 
care. The skins being- dry and hard when received, are first soaked and 
softened. They are next steeped in lime, unhaired, fleshed and bathed 
in a preparation of moistened dog's dung. After undergoing the influ- 
ence of this operation the skins are washed and the remaining hairs and 
dirt removed with a knife. They are then put into a drench of bran 
and water for purification, when they are ready for tanning; but the 
best consists in treating the skins to an already used sumach infusion, 
and by the gradual working of the liquor through the skins, partly 
aided by pressure, the tanning is quickly completed. For finishing, the 
leather is first dampened in soapsuds, and shaved on the flesh side to 
equalize the thickness of the leather, and "worked" on • a table with 
rollers, which renders the skin smooth and firm. From this point the 
methods of "finish^' diverge in an endless manner, according as it is 
desired to finish the leather, as "kid. pebbled, bright or dull/' Mo- 
rocco is the general term used for all goat and sheep skins.no matter 
how finished. 

Sheepskins and Lambskins are tanned by the same general operations 
as outlined in the case ^)i morocco. Previous to tanning the prepared 
skins are submitted to an immense pressure to expel the oily matter 
with which sheepskins are richly impregnated. 



LEATHER 97 

Roan Leather is sheepskin tanned in sumac, colored and dressed 
throughout in the same manner as imitation morocco, excepting- that it 
is finished smooth and glossed. 

Skivers are split grain sides of sheepskins tanned in sumach and fin- 
ished soft — the flesh split being "shamoyed ,, q. v. and finished white or 
variously marked and diced patterns, and in imitation grain; princi- 
pally used for hat trimmings and purposes in which thev meet little 
strain or wear. 

Tawed, or Alum Tanned Leather. — Many other substances besides 
tannic acid may be used^to preserve hides and skins and prepare them 
for certain uses; but these do not make leather which will resist mois- 
ture or retain its flexibility after wetting. The most extensively used 
of these is alum, so that the term alum tanned leather has became a 
common designation both in Europe and the United States. With this 
agent is tanned a large proportion of sheepskins and lighter glove 
leathers from deer, lamb and kid; also kid leather for the manufacture 
of ladies' and children's shoes. 

Kid Leather. — The various steps or operations through which light 
skins for the manufacture of ladies' and children's shoes pass, in respect 
to softening, liming, unhairing, bathing in dog's dung and drenching 
are similar to the processes by Avhich mororcco skins a"re prepared. The 
tawing itself is accomplished in a hollow cylinder into which is filled 
with for ever}' 100 goat or kid skins, a mixture consisting of 20 pounds 
of alum, 9 pounds of salt, 40 pounds of flour, 250 eggs, 1 pint of olive 
oil, and 15 gallons of water. In this heated mixture the skins are 
worked about 40 minutes, by which action the tawing is completed. 
After taken out of this drum the skins are dried rapidly by artificial 
heat, dampened and shaved down to the required thickness. Next they 
receive if necessary a second treatment of the tawing- mixture. The 
dyeing or coloring follows, which in case of shoe kid is always black, 
the color consisting of a compound of bi-chromate of potash, stale 
urine, logwood and copperas. It is applied either with brushes on a 
table or by dyeiufi in vats. The dyed leather is washed with pure 
water, dried, ironed and polished between glass rollers, and finally oiled 
on the flesh side with a mixture of oil and wax. 

Kid Leather, for gloves, is made from the tender skins of young kids 
and lambs. The raising of kids for their skins is a leading industry 
among French mountaineers. Softness, delicacy of texture and freedom 
from blemish are the principal factors in the value of kid skins, and to 
secure these great pains are taken. As soon as the young goat begins 
to eat grass the value of his skin declines, for with a grass diet its skin 
begins to grow coarser and harder in texture, and its chief merit van- 
ishes. It is therefore kept closely penned, not only to prevent it from 



98 LEATHER 

outing- grass, but also to secure the skin from accidental injury from 
scratches and bruises. When the kids have reached a certain age at 
which the skins are in the best condition for the use of the glover, they 
arc killed and the hides sold to travelling hawkers, through whom they 
reach the great centers of the tanning industry in France. The superior 
quality of these French skins, due to climatic causes, is what has given 
France the supremacy in the manufacture of the finest grades of real 
kid gloves in the world, a supremacy that will doubtless be long main- 
tained, inasmuch as foreign factories must rest content with second- 
rate skins, unless the}* maintain agents on the ground, a policy which a 
few American manufacturers have found necessary. In all stagf 
the preparation of this leather the utmost care and attention is requisite. 
The unhairing is effected by steeping the skins in a a mixture of lime 
and orpiment, and while the general process of fleshing-, bathing with 
dog's dung, washing and treating with bran drench is the same as in 
the case of other skins, much more attention is bestowed on each stage 
in order to maintain the smoothness of the grain, and to obtain a clean, 
elastic pelt, than is absolutely needful for any other variety of leather. 
The tawing- mixture consists for each 100 kid or lamb skins 28 pounds of 
liour, 3 l 4 pound alum, 1 pound salt, and 230 eggs. These substances are 
made into the consistency of cream, with water, and placed either in a 
vat or a revolving drum. When taken out they are dried and damped 
and stretched and dried again. For dyeing, the skins are lirst washed 
out in warm water to free them from superfluous alum and then again 
-'fed" with yolks of eggs and salt. For bright colors, such as soft grevs 
lavenders, yellows etc., the skins are plunged into small dye vats of the 
proper dye colors; but for all the darker colors the skins are stretched on 
a table and the dye stuffs applied with a brush. After completing the 
dyeing it remains to free the leather from superfluous moisture, dry it, 
and then stretch and smooth it out, which finishes the preparation of this 
valuable class of leather. 

Shamoy or Oil Leather. — The process of preparing leather by impreg- 
nating hides with oil is probably the oldest system of leather manufacture. 
Well shamoyed leather requires the exercise of much skill and numerous 
manipulative processes. Hides and skins of all kinds are prepared by 
shamoying; but sheep, goat, deer, antelope and small calf skins are 
those usually treated, an enormous number of flesh splits of sheep being 
shamoyed for common purposes. From the former use of the Chamois 
skin, of the Alps, is derived the name of the process "Chamois" or 
"Cham >y." At present none of these skins are obtainable. 

Skins for chamoying are in the preluminary stages treated almost as 
for ordinary tanning; but beyond unhairing, the surface of the grain is 
shaved off of all except the small thin skins. The skins are next taken 



LEATHER 99 

to the fulling" machine q. v. where after being- rubbed over well with fish 
oil, they are hammered for about two hours to force the oil into the sub- 
stance of the skin. They are then stretched, hung up for some time, 
again oiled and fulled; this operation may be continued from six to 
twelve times ; according to the thickness of the skins being- treated. After 
thorough impregnation the skins are dried, then heaped up in a heated 
room, where a process of oxidazation is quickly set up; so soon as they 
assume a yellow color and give off a peculiar odor not at all like 
fish oil, the process is complete and the fermentation is stopped. The 
skins are smoothed out and the chamois, or chamoy skin is ready for the 
market.' Many druggists sell them and many people buy them under 
the impression that they are off of the backs of the genuine Chamois 
animal of the Alp mountains, whereas they are in reality the flesh side 
of a split sheepskin. 

Patent leather was first made in Newark, New Jersey, in 1820, by 
Seth Bayden. Of late the demand for the finer grades of calf patent 
leather has largely fallen off and its place is in some measure filled by a 
cheaper article manufactured of kips or large hides, split and skived 
down to a proper thickness. It is finished expressly for this purpose, 
and care is taken to keep it as free as possible from grease. The skins 
are then tacked on frames and coated with a composition of linseed oil 
and umber, in the proportion of 18 gallons of the former to 5 ounces of 
the latter, boiled till nearly solid, and then mixed with spirits of turpen- 
tine to the proper consistency. From three to four coats of this are 
necessary to form a surface to receive the varnish. The coats are laid 
on with a sort of knife or scraper. To render the goods soft aud pliant, 
each coat must be very light and thoroughly dried between each appli- 
cation. A thin coat is afterwards applied of the same composition, of 
proper consistency to put on with a brush and with sufficient lamp black 
boiled into it to make a perfect black. When thoroughly dry it is 
ready to varnish. The principal varnish is made from linseed oil and 
Prussian blue, boiled to the thickness of printer's ink. It is reduced 
with spirits of turpentine to suitable thickness to work with a brush 
and is then applied in two or three separate coats which are 
scraped and pumiced until the leather is perfectly filled and smooth. 
The finishing coat is put on with especial care in a room kept closed 
with the floor wet to prevent dust. 

Grain leather is dressed horse hides, kip calf goat or sheep ski as 
blacked ahd finished in the grain side, and used for boots, shoes, etc. 

Pebble grain goat is grained in an irregular manner, as though nu- 
merous small pebbles of different sizes had been pressed upon its surface 
Glove calf and glove-sheep are sub names for morrocco, being tanned 
in the same manner and finished smooth; made of both calf skin and 



100 LEATHER 

sheep skin and used for topping- of mens shoes and also in the man- 
ufacture of ladies' and children's shoes. 

Dongola goat is straight grained morrocco, so called from the fact of 
it having originally been imported from the province of Dongola. 

Cordovan leather. — So called from Cordova Spain, where this leather 
is largely manufactured. Ii is some times goat skin tanned and 
dressed, but more frequently split horse-hide. Also called Cordwain 

LENO, or leno muslin, is linen muslin, of any thickness or fineness. 

LIGHT FABRICS.— A well-known cotton goods manufacturer says 
that to produce a heavy cotton fabric there are only two ways of doing 
it — either the use of thick, bulky threads or the use of an increased 
number of fine ones. "If we use bulky threads our fabric must present 
an appearance of coarseness, no matter what may be the order of inter- 
weaving, and we have no possible means of reducing the coarseness. If 
we use line threads it is more than likely that the order of interweaving 
will prevent the introduction of as many threads as will produce the 
weight of fabric we desire." 

LINEN. — (Cloth of Liut; from Lat. Unum, flax, linen.} From the 
earliest periods of human history till almost the close of the 18th cen- 
tury; the linen manufacture was one of the most extensive and widely 
disseminated domestic industries of European countries. The origin of 
its manufacture is very ancient. It was old in the time of Heredotus, 
500 B. C. The earliest mention of flax by any author occurs in the ac- 
count of the plague of hail which devastated Lower Egypt, Ex. ix. 31. 
Linen can be conclusively traced to the early Egyptians, and there is 
strong evidence that they originated its manufacture, there being ample 
biblical authority as to the skill acquired in weaving line linen by the 
Israelites, which was gained during their captivity in Egypt. Beyond 
this, recent researches prove that the Egyptians were as well acquainted 
with the processes to which flax is subjected as ourselves, the mural 
decorations of their temples displaying- with minuteness the imple- 
ments used in the cultivation of flax, the treatment when ripened, and 
of the fibres as well of the subsequent process of spinning- and weaving. 
Their mummy wrappings, too, show that with their crude machinery, 
this ancient people produced linen fabric far exceeding- in fineness any 
cloths which we can produce either by hand labor or the most modern 
mechanical inventions. One piece of linen cloth found on a mummy had 
540 warp threads to the inch, and another piece had 365 threads of each 
warp and weft per inch; the finest ever spun and woven in England be- 
ing 35t) threads per inch. The wonderful durability- of linen is evi- 
denced by its existence for so many centuries on mummies and by the 
remarkable fact mentioned by the German writer and traveler. Seetzen, 



LINEN 101 

that he had found several napkins within the folds of the covering on a 
mummy which he unwrapped, and that he had them washed several 
times without injury, and used with great veneration " this venerable 
linen which had been woven more than 1700 years." From the time of 
these ancient Egyptians up to the present period, the use of linen for 
clothing and other purposes has been continuous, and although the vast 
.development of the cotton manufacture checked its consumption for a 
time, it has about regained its former proportions. 

Linen fabrics have several advantages over cotton, resulting princi- 
pally from the structure and longer lengths of the flax fibre. The 
cloth is much smoother and more lustrous than cotton cloth; and has a 
less "woolly" surface, so that it does not soil so easily as the more 
spongv cotton. Bleached linen starched and dressed, possesses that un- 
equalled puritv, gloss and smothness which make it alone the material 
for shirt fronts, collars, etc., and the gossamer delicacy yet strength of 
the thread it may be spun into fits it for the fine lace making to which 
it is devoted. Flax is a heavier material than cotton, but weight for 
weight it is much stronger, single threads having proportionate strength 
in the ratio of 3 to 1% and cloth 3 to 2. 

The manufacture of linen goods in the United States remains among 
the lost arts, although many efforts have been made to establish the 
business here for more than half a century. Various causes have been 
assigned for this failure, but perhaps the main reasons have been 
overlooked. To make linen goods we must either grow flax or import 
it. Our government has placed a tariff on dressed flax of $60.00 per ton 
so that home mills cannot buy the raw material in foreign countries 
and manufacture it at a profit to compete with Irish and Russian man- 
ufacturers. Since the developement of the cotton industry and the 
abandonment of home weaving, q. v., when every farmer regularly each 
season raised a crop of flax, the cultivation of this valuable fibre has 
been greatly neglected. The exact reasons for this are hard to ascer- 
tain. Objections have often been raised against our hot summers and 
cold winters as impediments to the successful growth of flax, and of 
gathering it at the proper season for the market, but we know that 
Russia is a great flax growing country, and that in the same latitude 
heat and cold prevail as intensely as in the United States. It would be 
singular indeed if within our broad domain, no corner could be found in 
our virgin soil adapted to the growth of this fibre; but it is a fact be- 
yond doubt that we do grow flax, and very good flax, too, in many parts 
of this country and Canada. 

The products of our home flax and linen mills amount to about 
$2,000,000 yearly, while our importations amount to about $30,000,000 
per year, on which there is an average tariff of 50 per cent ad valorem. 



l<>2 LINEN 

The bulk of our linens come from Ireland, England and Russia. 

The modern manufacture of linen divides itself into two branches, 
spinning and weaving - , to which may be added the bleaching- and finish- 
ing processes, which, in the case of many linen textures, are laborious 
undertakings and important branches of the industry. Flax, when re- 
ceived into the mills, has to undergo a train of preparatory operations 
before it arrives ae the stage of being twisted into yarn. The first 
process consists in heckling the flax in order to remove the bark and out- 
side wrapper, and then laying smooth and parallel the separate fibres. 
This tedious operation was at one time performed by hand, but at pres- 
ent machines are in use. The inferior parts of flax removed by heck- 
ling are called "tow." Next come preparing 1 or "roving"" and spinning 
which do not differ greatly from the processes used in the spinning of 
cotton. Spinners make up their yarn into "bundles" of twenty hanks, 
each hank containing 10 leas of 300 yards each — 3,000 yards. The 
quality of all linen yarns is estimated by the number of leas (300 yards) 
in a pound; thus, 50 lea yarn indicates that there are 50 leas of 300 
yards each in a pound of the yarn so denominated. 

No. 60 yarn— 60 leas 300 yards each. •. 18000 yards) per pound. 
" 100 " —100 " " i* ( 30000 " ) 

" 200 " —200 ll " " ( 60000 " ) 

» soo " —500 " " " (150000 " ) 

Commercial qualities of yarn range from 8 up to 160 lea yarn. Much 
finer yarn, up even to 550 may be spun by machines found in man}' fac- 
tories, but these line counts are only used for fine thread and the mak- 
ing of lace. Exceedingly high counts have sometimes been spun by 
hand, and for the preparation of the finest lace, it is said the Belgian 
hand spinners must work in damp cellars, where the spinner is guided 
by the sense of touch alone, the filament being too fine to be seen by 
the eye. Such lace yarn is said to have been sold for as much as $1,200 
per pound. In the great exhibition in 1S51 yarn of 760 lea — equal to 130 
miles per pound was shown which had been spun by an Irish woman 84 
years old. The various operations connected with linen weaving, such 
as winding, warping, pressing- beaming and drawing do not differ from 
cotton weaving, the looms being the same. Dressing" is a matter of 
imp trtunee in the preparation of linen warps for beaming. It consists 
in treating the yarn with flour paste, applied to it by cylinders, the 
lowermost of which revolves in a trough of paste. The paste is equal- 
ized on the yarn by brushes and dried by passiug over steam-heated cans 
before it is finally wound on the beam for weaving. This makes the 
warp stronger and decreases the liability of its breaking when stretched. 

Bleaching of linen is generally understood to mean the process of 
whitening or decolorizing cloth. Until "about the vear 1800, bleaching 



LINEN 103 

depended upon the natural bleaching- agencies present in the atmosphere 
and the sun's rays. The usual plan was to spread out the cloth on a 
grassy field called a "bleaching green" and to continue sprinkling it 
with water several times a day. After being thus exposed for several 
months to the action of the air, light and moisture, the cloth was ren- 
dered white. The process was tedious and occupied much valuable land 
for the best part of the year, and for this reason large quantities were 
sent from Ireland, England and France to Holland for that purpose. A 
particular kind of linen which was regularly sent to Holland to be bleach- 
ed, received. on that account the name of Hollands; and another variety 
of linens, which from its fineness was spread on the smoother grass fields 
or lawns, received the title of lawn. On account of the time consumed 
by the open-air process of bleaching, many other plans have from time 
to time been proposed and patented, but hitherto none of them have 
stood the test of extended practical operation. The English Govern- 
ment once awarded a premium of $1500 to James Lee for a patent method 
of bleaching linen, and expended many thousand dollars on his machines 
and experiments, but in the course of a few years the plan was abondoned 
as a failure. The bleaching of linen to the present day is conducted 
much more in the primitive fashion of last century than is the practice 
with cotton-bleaching. Owing to the stiffness and inelasticity of the flax 
fibres, a great part of the machinery used for cotton is not available for 
linen, and solutions of acid and bleaching-powder require to be used in a 
very dilute condition for linen fabrics. 

Ammonia is a good test as to the completeness and success of bleached 
linen. Well-bleached linen is not in the least discolored by it, but linen 
which is white but not thoroughly freed from pectic matters becomes 
yellowish in ammonia. Such linen will become yellow if kept in stock 
for some length of time. The following is a French method of testing 
linen fabrics to find out if there is a mixture of jute in them: k ' Put a 
little solution of chloride of lime into a saucer, and lay in it, for four or 
five minutes, the thread or cloth to be examined, then squeeze out the 
solution and put the fabric into a solution of ordinary hydrochlorate 
acid, and, after a few moments, take out and wash in plenty of water, 
^hen appl}- a drop of ammonia to the fabric, and, in case there is a 
mixture of jute, a slightly violet-red color is immediately imparted. 
Flax and hemp become slightly brown. The red coloration, however, 
does not remain long, and the proportion of jute mixture can only be 
roughly shown." To distinguish thin linen clothfrom thin cotton cloth, 
moisten the tip end of a finger and apply it to the cloth. If it be linen 
the moisture will come through quickly; if cotton, it will come through 
slowly,, .. ,vi , 



104 LINOLEUM 

LINOLEUM. — This variety of floor cloth consists of oxidized linseed' 
oil, combined with ground cork, treated and rolled! very much rathe same 
manner as Kamptuli can q. v., to which in appearance it bears a close 
resemblance. It was patented in 1863 by F. Waif ton, who specifies 
as the most suitable composition for the bod) of linoleum, 4 percent of 
oxidized oil, 1/4 per cent of resin, \i cwt of kaurie-gum and coloring 
matter, mixed together in a steam heated pan, and afterwards mixed 
with an equal weight of cork dust, and spread on and pressed into a woven 
cloth of jute or hemp between steam heated rollers. It is stated the 
weight required for this is 4000 pounds to the square inch.. The pattern 
is painted on the surface by means of blocks. Linoleum has the advan- 
tage that it is not cold like tiling or oil cloth; it is made in all widths 
up to six yards. 

LINSEY-WOOLSEY. — A coarse flannel of linen and wool mixed to- 
gether, was first made at Linsey, Suffolk county, England, in 1450. 
The linsey-woolsey of the present is a similar material into which cot- 
ton enters instead of linen, with a weft of inferior wool. The attempt 
has been made to reserve the word linsey for a mixture of linen and wool, 
and woolsey for a mixture of cotton and wool, but without success. 

LISLE THREAD owes its name to the fact that the first manufac- 
tured was in the city of Lisle, France. This easily recognized fabric is 
made from an extra quality of long staple cotton. The yarn is spun 
exceedingly fine and tiglitty twisted. Before being knitted or woven, 
it passes through a process to remove from it every particle of nap or 
fuzz; the yarn is then given a bath in a chemical preparation which 
greatly aids in producing that fine, gritty, "linenish" feeling, peculiar 
only to Lisle thread. 

LISSE (lece) is a French term signifying thread of a web. The fabric 
known as Lisse has the same organization as Tarlatan, the difference being 
that Lisse is woven finer, of either silk or cotton, and is a much more deli- 
cate material; used for ladies neckwear and in the manufacture of ruching; 
when fluked or crimped is called crape Lisse. 

LYNX SKINS are of a grey color, more or less approaching to a black 
according to the climate which the animal inhabits. The darkest shade 
is on the back, and the hue becomes gradually lighter downwards to the 
belly, which is white, and marked with black spots, as are the other parts 
of the skin. The hair is longest on the belly, and is therefore most fre- 
quently employed by furriers in the manufacture of muffs. The lynx is 
common in Sweden, Russia, Poland, and upon the Alps; those which 
inhabit the latter region are not very dissimilar to the others^ but their 
fur is less soft and beautiful. These animals are likewise to be met 
with in most parts of North America. Those of Canada and the neigh- 



LYNX 105 

bouring districts are of a very deep grey colour; but such as inhabit the 
vicinity of Hudson's Bay are almost white, on which account their skins 
are highly valued. 

LYRE, Cloth of. -A 15th century cloth ; this is the fullest description 
that can be given of the stuff, nothing having been found throwing any 
light upon its character or its title. We may infer that it was of good 
quality, since two pieces of it are included in a list of articles permitted 
in 1428 to be exported duty free for the use of the king of Portugal and 
the countess of Holland. Two years later, under like circumstances, 
five yards were sent to King James of Scotland. 

M 

MACKINTOSH.— A waterproof garment, particularly an overcoat or 
cloak, so named in 1823 from the inventor, Charles Mackintosh. The 
ordinary Mackintosh cloth is prepared by spreading on the cotton, silk 
or woolen fabric, layer after layer of india-rubber paste. Double texture 
goods are made by uniting the rubber surfaces of two pieces of the 
coated material. The cloth is then cut in the desired shape and the 
seams united by joining the soft material before it cools. Good qualities 
of Mackintosh long coats vafy in price from $15 to $25. [See India- 
Rubber and Goloshes.] 

MACREME is a strong, hard-twisted cotton cord, prepared for the 
manufacture of macreme lace; also used for other work, such as netting 
of various kinds, and for hammocks. Macreme trimming is made by 
knotting the threads together so as to form geometrical patterns, leav- 
ing a long fringe of the threads. The word is of Arabic origin. ' 

MADDER.— A plant, the roots of which are ground up and when 
dissolved in water, used as a red dye. The use of madder has been 
known from the earliest times, as cloth dyed with it has been found on 
Egyptian mummies. It was not, however, until the beginning of the 
present century that the coloring property of madder began to attract 
especial attention. It had long before been noticed that cattle and hogs 
which fed on the green parts of the madder plant had a red color com- 
municated to their bones, which was only removed or prevented by 
keeping them away from this kind of food for a considerable length of 
time. Also the claws and beaks of birds which fed on madder roots, 
were affected in the same manner, and the milk of cows that use it is 
tinged with a reddish color, which is even imported to the butter; all 
showing it to be one of the most powerful coloring substances known:. 1 
[See Bandanna and Turkey Red.] 



■ 106 MANILA 

MANILA HEMP is extensively cultivated in the Phillipine Islands, 
and is used for a great variety of purposes, owing- to the many qualities 
of the hemp. The outside bark is manufactured into cordage, binding 
twine, matting, ropes, etc., while the inner fibre is spun into fine mus- 
lins and other delicate fabrics. Manilla hats are produced from this 
material. [See Hats.] 

MANTEAU was the term used in the 18th century to denote a loose 
a-own worn by ladies, and is probably derived from the French word 
manteau, meaning mantle, or cloak. 

MARBLED SILK is woven with a variety of colored weft threads, so 
as to give the appearance of marble to the web, stained or veined 
irregularly. Marbled Cloth is manufactured in two shades, and is 
composed of silk and wool, interwoven so that the surface is mottled or 
"dappled. 1 ' Marble or Marbleized Plush is so called because by a pro- 
cess of manufacture, the plush has a variable shading in different lights, 
somewhat resembling the patterns in marble. 

MARSEILLES. — So called from the original place of its manufacture, 
Marseilles, France. A stiff, corded, cotton fabric similar to pique, 
originally used for men's white vests, ladies dresses, etc. Marsella is 
the name of the same fabric twilled. Marseilles Quilts may be identi- 
fied by being woven of very fine yarn and having large embossed figures 
appearing from a smooth and unbroken surface. These quilts are woven 
in the Jacquard loom on the double-weaving principle, the embossing 
being produced by the extra warp threads. [See Weaving.] The 
backing weft sometimes floats outside the cloth, sometimes is bound in- 
side just below the plain face, and at other parts the whole of the yarn 
is firmly united. Where the backing is brought inside, the top cloth is 
raised up, while at those places where the warps are woven together, a 
depression is caused. Large embossed figures may thus be shown on the 
cloth, although it appears to have an unbroken surface — unlike a brocade 
or a damask. 

MARVELIEUX. — A fine, close-twilled, satin-faced silk fabric, re- 
sembling Rhadame dress silk, and with the same glossy finish, but with 
the sunken lines or twills hardly so perceptible as in Satin Rhadame. 

MATELASSE CLOTH— (Mat-les-say) is a heavy cloaking fabric 
composed of cotton and wool, or silk, cotton and wool mixed, distin- 
guished by the pattern being a large brocade,' of an overshot or embossed 
appearance. In color Matelasse is usually black and is used in the 
•manufacture of ladies' cloaks,- the New Market style especially. This 
style of Cloak has a' full leng-th skirt, hence manufacturers frequently 
use • a -cotton" warp in order to lighten and cheapen the material. - The 
cotton warp runs through the center ahdis not exposed, the wool filling 



MATELASSE 107 

only showing- on the face and back, the latter being- ordinarily napped, 
by teasling- q. v. 

Matelasse is a French term applied to a silk or woolen cloth to denote 
the peculiar style of its weaving. Such materials have a raised figured 
or flowered design on the surface, having a quilted or wadded appearance. 
This is indicated by the adoption of the past participle of the verb 
matelasser, to quilt or wad. 

MATTING. — Mattings are made of cocoa, cocoa and cane and all 
cane. The matting termed Napier is made of hemp. China Matting 
exported from China and Japan consists of two kinds: "China" matting 
which is made in 2 an 5 yard pieces, and fastened together in one 40 
yard roll; and "Japan" matting - , which is made in one 40 yard piece 
without a joint, and can be reversed. Some of the late Japanese pro- 
ductions have figures inserted into the ground, but these latter are not 
reversible on account of the pattern. 

MELANGE is a French word sig-nifying- "mixture;" in the dry goods 
trade usually applied to dress goods of a black and white color mixture. 
There is also a variety of black and white dress goods, of French man- 
ufacture, woven with a cotton warp and woolen weft, termed Melang-e. 

MELTON received its name from the original manufacturer. It is a 
stout woolen goods used for men's clothing; in recent years larg-ely used 
in the manufacture of ready-made overcoats. After weaving, the cloth 
is fulled to a degree completely concealing the warp and weft; then the 
surface is sheared and finished without a nap, being neither pressed nor 
glossed; dyed in solid colors, usually black and shades of brown. [See 
Thibet Cloth.] 

MERINO. — The second finest breed of sheep in the world, of Spanish 
origin, so called from their being under the superintendency of the 
maerino, (major) or inspector of the sheep pastures. For centuries the 
finer wools used for cloth making throughout Europe were obtained from 
Spain, which was the home of the famous Merino breed, developed from 
races of sheep introduced by the Romans, the originals of which formed 
the flocks of the patriarchs thousands of years ago, and have been the 
parent stock of all fine wooled sheep since. The Spanish Merino sheep 
were introduced into Saxony in 1765, and by judicious crossing developed 
the famous Electoral breed, which produces the finest and most expen- 
sive wool in the world. Fine Merinos have frequently been brought to 
the United States and crossed with our native sheep, to the manifest 
improvement of the fleece in every instance. 

Merino dress goods was first made in 1826, at Bradford, England, of 
pure Merino wool, at which time it was one of the most expensive woolen 
dress fabrics manufactured. In appearance it is a thin woolen material, 



108 MERINO 

twilled on both sides, back and face alike; superseded in the last few 
years b) T Cashmere and Henrietta, which fabrics it resembles. 

Merino is also the term applied to a variety of medium weight, white 
knitted underwear, which was formerly made of pure Merino wool, but 
now of cotton, or half and half. 

The tariff on Merino scoured wool valued above 30 cents per pound, is 
36 cents per pound and 61 per cent ad valorem; valued at 30 cents or less 
per pound, the tariff is 30 cents per pound and 74 per cent ad valorem. 

METRE.— One and one-tenth yards. 

MILLINER is a corruption of "Milaner," so called from the city of 
Milan, Italy, which at one time gave the law to Europe in all matters 
of taste, dress and elegance. 

MILLE-RAYE is a variety of percale, so named as being- descriptive 
of the pattern, which consists of minute thread-like stripes, alternately 
black and white. The width of this light-printed cotton cloth is 32 
inches. It is a washing material and is largely used for children's 
frocks, etc. 

MOHAIR, BRILLIANTINE and SICILLIAN are full sisters in the 
famity of dress goods. These fabrics have an Angora or Alpaca wool 
filling and a cotton warp. Brilliantine is the finest, woven the closest 
and presents the brightest and most lustrous surface. Mohair is a grade 
lower than Brilliantine, while Sicillian is distinguished by being a 
somewhat heavier and stouter fabric than either of the two sisters. 
Mohair in all textile goods, is conducive to wiry strength, as well as a 
desirable beauty. The word is a corruption of the German Mohr — a 
Moor. It is the hair of the Angora goat, and is supposed to have been 
first used by the Orientals. It was introduced into Spain by the Moors, 
and thence brought into Germany. In later years it was extensively 
produced in Great Britain, and sparing-ly in the United States, though 
there seems to be no valid reason why it should not be grown extensively 
here. [See Angora.] 

MOLESKIN. —Originally a kind of Fustian; a double-twilled and 
extra strong cotton cloth, cropped before dyeing. At present it is a 
medium heavy, cwilled totton cloth, napped on the inside and printed 
on the outside, used for men's pantaloons. 

MOMIE CLOTH is found in both wool and cotton fabrics. "Momie" 
applies to the weave rather than to the material of which the fabric is 
composed. By a peculiar weaving, in which the warp and weft threads 
are made to cross each other irregularly, a puckered and indented surface 
is produced, not unlike crape, "Momie" is the French spelling of 
"mummy." The name was first applied to a French all wool dress 



MOMIE CLOTH 109 

fabric, woven to imitate the cloth found on mummies taken from the 
Pyramids of Egypt, and was of a rough, irregular weave. This weave 
is now copied in cheap cotton goods by American manufacturers by 
using- a very fine warp thread and a heavy filling-, and unlike in either 
plain or twill weaving, the threads intersect each other at irregular in- 
tervals; frequently printed for Draperies, Furniture Covers, Cretonne, 
as well as being dyed in solid colors. When woven in wool a puckered 
or fluked appearance is produced, not unlike Crape. 

MONTENAC. — (Probably derived from the French monte, to cover.) 
A heavy, napped overcoat cloth of recent origin, distinguished by a 
portion of the nap being formed in wooly loobs, the other portion straight 
napped as in Fur Beaver q. v. 

MOIRE, (Mo-ry) the French name applied to silks, figured by the 
peculiar process called "watering," The silks for this purpose, must be 
first wetted, and then folded with particular care, to insure the threads 
of the fabric lying all in the same direction and not crossing each other 
except as is the usual way of the web. The folded pieces of wet silk 
are then submitted to an enormous pressure, generally in a hydraulic 
machine. By this pressure the air is slowly expelled, and, in escaping, 
draws the moisture into curious waved lines which leaves the permanent 
marking called "watesing." The finest kinds of watered silk are known 
as Moire Antique. The same process has been applied to woolen fab- 
rics, called Moreen, which is only a corruption of the word Moire. This 
latter process is also called "tabbying." [See Watering.] 

MOIRE ANTIQUE is a watered dress silk made in the antique style, 
so as to resemble the materials woven in the ancient times. [See Moire.] 

MOSQUITO NETTING. A coarse gauze with large open meshes, 
used for mosquito bars. The most common kind has a single warp con- 
fined between two weft strands. Mosquito net is put up in bunches of 
twelve pieces, the combined length of which should be 100 yards— eight 
and one-third yards per piece. 

MUFFLER is a term applied to the old French amusler — to cover — the 
museau or muffle, a word which has been indiscriminately used for the 
mouth, nose and even the whole face; hence our word "muzzle." Muffler 
in early times, was the name of a sort of veil worn by females. The 
French call their winter gloves Moufles, aud single pieces of stuffed fur, 
with which a lady covers her hands is a "muff." Mufflers at present are 
any sort of neckerchief made from cotton, wool or silk. 

MULL. (.From Latin Molio, to soften. ) A peculiarly thin and soft 
kind of muslin, used for dresses, neckwear, trimming, etc. It is woven 
of extremely fine cotton yarns, absolutely free from sizing or starch. 



110 MUSLIN 

MUSLIN. — The name is derived from Mosul, a city in Asiatic Turkey- 
long- celebrated for the fineness and delicacy of its cottons. The origi- 
nal home, however, of muslin weaving is in India, where even yet won- 
derful fabrics of airy lig-htness continue to be woven, with the aid of 
onlv the most rude and primitive looms; these India looms consist merely 
of two bamboo rollers and a pair of heddles and shuttle which are at- 
tached between any two trees affording a comfortable shade. The rigid 
and clumsy fingers of our American weavers would scarcely be able to 
make even a piece of rough canvas with the instruments a Hindoo uses 
in making a piece of the finest cambric muslin. It cannot but seem as- 
tonishing that in a department of industry, where the raw material has 
been so grossly neglected, where the machinery is so rude, that the re- 
sults should be fabrics of the most exquisite delicacy and beauty, unri- 
valled by the products of civilized nation*, even those best skilled in the me- 
chanical arts. This can only be explained by the remarkably line sense 
of touch possessed by that effeminate people, by their patience and gen- 
tleness, and by the hereditary continuance of muslin-manufacture in 
families through many generations, which leads to the training of chil- 
dren from their very infancy in the processes of the art. For the light- 
est fabrics, the young women spin the thread during the early part of 
the day, when the dew is on the ground; for such is the extreme tenuity 
of the fibre that it will not bear manipulation after the sun has risen. 
Some of the allusions to the wonderful fineness of these India muslins 
appear to border on the marvelous; we read in a missionaries account 
of a dress length of cotton being enclosed in a nut-shell; and of a father 
who reproving his daughter for the indecent transparency of her dress, 
retorted that she was robed in forty yards of the stuff. Another mis- 
sionary writing- from Serampore asserts that "some muslins are made so 
fine you can hardly feel them with your hand, and when laid on the 
grass to bleach, and the dew has fallen on it, it is no longer discerni- 
ble.'.' And the same writer sa3 T s: "There is made at Seconge a sort of 
calicut so fine that when a man puts it on, Ms skin appear* as plainly 
through it as though he were quite naked; but the merchants are not allowed 
to transport it, for the governor is obliged to send it all to the Great 
Mogul's seraglio and the principal lords of the court, to make the sul- 
tanesses and noblemans' wives shifts for the hot weather; and the king 
and the lords take great pleasure to behold them in these shifts, and to 
see them dance with nothing else upon them." The name bestowed 
by the Romans on the fabric — rev tux textilis, or "woven wind" — is not 
entirely figurative. It is remarkable that every distinct quality of mus- 
lin made in India is the production of a particular district, in which the 
art of making the fabric has been transmitted for centuries from father 
to son — a custom which alone must have conduced to the perfection of 
the manufacture. 



MUSLIN 111 

Muslin proper may be denned as a thin, plain-woven, uncolored cotton 
cloth of any width. First made in this country at Pawtucket, Rhode 
Island, December 21, 1790, by Samuel Slater, the father of American 
cotton manufacture. The following- estimate is the cost of one pound of 
cotton made into brown muslin: cents 

One pound of Middling- Cotton delivered at Mill 12.50 

Waste 1.48 

Labor ■ 3.80 

General Expenses 2.08 

19.86 

Heavy muslins like "Indian Head" or "Wauchusett A," weighing 2.80 
yds to the pound, would equal 7.2 cents per }^ard, first cost. 

Muslin the weight of "Pepperell R," weighing 3.70 yds to the pound, 
would equal 5^3 cents per yard. "Hoosier LL" and Lawrence LL," cost 
4^8 cents per yard. The cost of manufacturidg any brown muslin may 
be ascertained by dividing 19.86 by the number of yards of the muslin 
to the pound. Bleached cottons usually come one cent higher than 
brown, and lose a small amount of their weight in bleaching. [See 
Bleaching and Adulteration op Fabrics; also Appendix for Weights 
and Picks of cotton goods.] 

There are many varieties of muslin, of which, according to a textile 
authority, the following are among the principal ones: 

"Mull Muslin, a dressed and stiffened variety called Swiss Mull; 
Foundation Muslin, which is very open in texture, and made both in 
white and black; Buke (commonly called "Book") Muslin, which is sold 
in a plain, clear, soft and unstiffened state, and is hard and dressed. 
There are also Figured Muslins wrought in the loom of various widths. 
Cambric Muslin is an imitation of linen of that make; it is sold colored 
for linings, glazed, white and black, plain and twilled, figured, striped 
and'corded. Sherhand Muslin is a kind between Nainsook and Mull, 
and is valued for dresses on account of its retaining its clearness after 
having been washed. Tamboured Muslins are chiefly made in Scotland. 
Muslinette is a thick description of muslin. Leno is a clearer, thinner 
and softer material than Buke Muslin, being slight arid g-auze-like in, 
quality. There are also Cords and Fancy Checks, having stripes and 
cords crossing each other, forming squares, thick threads being- 
introduced into the warp and weft. Nainsook is a thick sort of Jaconet, 
made in plain stripes, the latter running the same way as the warp. 
Coteline Muslm is a kind of white hair cord muslin, printed in all kinds 
of patterns and colors. It is of French manufacture and designed for a 
dress material. The width measures 31 inches. The printing and shad- 
ing of these goods are considered remarkably good." 



112 NEEDLES. 



N 



NAIL. — A unit of cloth measure — 2% inches or one-sixteenth of a 
yard. Abbreviated N. 

NAINSOOK is from the Hindoo word Nainsukh, which originally 
was used to designate India muslin, or sprigged muslin, i. e. marked 
or adorned with the representation of small branches. Nainsook at 
present is a tine, soft, bleached cambric, woven in small checks and 
stripes. French Nainsook, which is imported from France, is the 
finest, softest and most expensive variety. 

NANKEEN was formerly extensively imported from Nanking, China, 
to Europe, whence its name, the "king," however; having been changed 
into "keen." It was supposed the Chinese held the secret f or d}-eing its 
peculiar yellowish buff color, which was found to be remarkably durable. 
But it became known through some missionaries that this peculiar color 
was not produced by dyeing at all, the cloth being made of a buff colored 
variety of cotton, which is still occasionally produced in China and In- 
dia. The color of our "artificial" Nankeen is produced by an elaborate 
process, in which the cloth is first dipped into a saturated solution of 
alum; then in a decoction of oak bark; then in a bath of lime water, and 
next in a bath of nitro-muriate of tin, which makes a permanent dye. 
In appearance either plain or twilled, weight of heavy sheeting; used 
for children's summer clothes and underwear. 

NAP. — From Fr. Naper, to nip off the knots on the surface of cloth. 
The woolly surface of felt, of cloth, of some plants and the like. The 
surface covering of down or short fibres combed out of the substance 
of a fabric and l} 7 ing smoothl}- in one direction. The loops of the warp 
in uncut velvet is the nap, but when cut, form the pile. [See Pile 
and Teasijno.] 

NAPKIN is from French Nappa, which literally means a little cloth. 
In the 16th century pocket handerchiefs were commonly called napkins, 
and they are still styled pocket napkins by the Scotch. Napkins are 
woven in long lengths like muslin and sold at wholesale in separate 
packs of a dozen each, all attached. [See Table Linen, Doilv.] 

NAPPING.— [See Teaslino.] 

NEEDLES.- How many are there among the hundreds of thousands 
who buy, see and use that little necessity of the household — the needle — 
who have any idea of the many and various processes the piece of steel 
goes through before it is ready for the housewife? There are altogether 



NEEDLES I 13 

twelve different processes through which the needle wire goes before the 
perfect needle is produced. It is first received on large wooden spools 
from the wire drawer, and cut into short lengths and placed in large 
quantities in regular piles; after which a heavy platform is lowered upon 
them and worked back and forth over the wires, rubbing them out 
straight. The ''pointing" comes next and is accomplished by placing 
the wires between a revolving pulley and belt; as the pulley revolves the 
wires are also rapidly turned, and coming in contact with a fine grind- 
stone, the points are quickly ground down. After this comes the pol- 
ishing and then the stamping machine, which flattens the steel around 
the eyes, so that it is very thin. Then the "eyes" are punched through, 
and they are taken between the thumb and finger by the workman 
and passed over a small grindstone which removes the surplus steel from 
the outside edges of the eyes. The tempering of the steel is the next 
process; large shovels being used on whieh the needles are laid and held 
in the furnace until the proper temper is obtained. From here they are 
taken and thrown into buckets of oil which hardens and at the same time 
makes them elastic. Then follows brightening the needles, large quan- 
tities being placed in chamois skins, filled with oil and powdered emery. 
They are rolled up and securely tied, and a platform lowered upon the 
bundles moving them back and forth, rubbing the needles together and 
by means of the oil and emery brightening them. To free them from 
oil they are placed in large pans of sawdust, and shaken till thoroughly 
dried. A little polishing over a buff wheel then finishes the needle with 
the exception of the inside of the eye. To do this a large number are 
threaded upon a small wire which is extremely hard and rough. The 
needles are revolved at a very high rate of speed, thoroughly brighten- 
ing the inside of the eye and removing the roughness, which prevents 
the cutting of the thread. Many cheap needles are not put through this 
process. Girls stick them into small pieces of cloth. Ten papers are 
tied up into a bunch, twenty-five needles to the paper, making a quarter 
of a thousand. They are sold to the retail stores at so much per thous- 
and needles. 

Originally needles were made of three distinct shapes. The first short 
and rather stubby, with the point ground down rather rounding, and 
were called "ground -downs." The next a little narrower and sharper 
at the point, were termed "betweens." "Sharps" were the slimmest and 
most narrow-pointed. One-sixth of our needles are made in Brooklyn, 
N. Y.; the balance are imported from Redditch, England. On all im- 
ported needles, there is a tariff of 25 per cent. 

NETTING, or NET MAKING. -This art is so ancient that no date 
can be fixed for its invention. That it was practiced for fishing and 
bird catching by the earliest inhabitants of the earth is without doubt, 



114 NETTING 

and there is still to be seen in the Museum at Berlin, Germany, some 
Egyptian nets, and the implements by which they were made, that are 
3,000 years old. [ See Bobbinet.] 

NEW MARKET is a style of ladies' winter cloak imported irom 
England a few years ago, superseding- the Dolman in 1883-4. It was 
formerly the name of a close fitting overcoat used by men for riding and 
driving, which received its name from New Market, England, a town 
famous the world over for its horses and horse-racing. The ladies' 
style of New Market has not departed far from the original, it still being 
a tight fitting garment made of heavy goods, the skirt reaching quite 
to the ground. 

NOIL. — The short lengths and knots of wool taken from the long 
staple in the process of combing. These Noils are either used to make 
felt, or are put into cloth to increase its thickness. It is the function 
of the combing machine now in use to separate the "top" or long fibre 
from the "Noil" or short and broken wool. [See Wool and Worsted.] 

NUN'S VEILING is a wide, untwilled "woolen" q. v. fabric, very 
soft, fine and thin; a sort of fine, double fold bunting, formerly used by 
nuns for veils, but now used exclusively for ladies' summer dresses,dyed 
black, white and colors. 

NUTRIA FUR. — The Nutria is an animal of the genus rodent, some- 
what resembling both the musquash and the beaver. It is smaller than 
the latter, but larger than the former, and inhabits the banks of rivers 
in Buenos Ayres and Chili, being a kind of water rat. Nutria skins are 
dressed and dyed as a substitute for sealskin, and are also used in the 
manufacture of hats as a substitute for beaver. 



O 



OIL CLOTH.— Floor.— The body of Oil Cloth is what is called 
burlaps q. v., and is made of jute q. v., imported from Scotland. This 
coarse cloth is woven soft and limp, and is stiffened or "sized" by being 
passed through a mixture of starch and glue and over hot rollers, com- 
ing out, it might be said laundried. It is then ready for the paint ma- 
chine where it is given the body. This paint is composed of raw oil, 
turpentine, ochre and umber. There are four qualities of Oil Cloth , 
depending on the number of body coats of paint; that which is to be 
the best quality receives six coats; the poorer grades a less number. 
The cloth is in pieces 25 yards long by from 1 yard to 2% yards wide. 
The thickness of each coat of paint is governed by a steel knife, in 



OIL CLOTH 115 

manipulating- which a workman becomes so proficient that he can tell 
nearly to the pound what a piece of Oil Cloth will weigh when the 
coating - process is completed. Three men at a paint machine can turn 
out in a day 100 pieces containing SO square yards each — 5,000 square 
yards. The operation of coating the best quality of Oil Cloth occupies 
a week, as each coat requires 24 hours to dry. It is then sent to the 
rubbing machine, where surfaces coated with glue and sand passes rap- 
idly over the side which is to be printed, ridding it of all irregulari- 
ties. The better qualities are afterward given an extra coat of paint, 
when they are ready for the printers. This is the most interesting part 
of the operation. For every color in the pattern there must be a wooden 
block. These blocks come from Main, and are about two inches thick 
and two teet square, and composed of several pieces of wood. The top 
layer is of maple, crossed and recrossed by narrow grooves which form 
a surface of small squares, 144 of them to the square inch. These little 
squares look like, and are in reality, so many pegs. Where the pattern 
is desired to show the pegs are left standing; those on the parts of the 
surface not to be printed being cut away. The styles in patterns change 
twice a year. Some are designed in Uttica, and -others come from 
Philadelphia and New York. Some patterns containing many colors 
require from twenty-five to thirty blocks, and consequently that num- 
ber of impressions, to reproduce the design. The paint used is similar 
to ordinary house paint. Oil Cloth is open to the objection that it has 
a hard, cold and uncomfortable surface, while it is almost as noisy to 
the tread as ordinary wood flooring. Many substances have been pro- 
posed to supplant it, in which these objectionable features have been 
overcome. Of these bodies linoleum q. v. and kamptulicon q. v. have 
proved the mos successful. 

OIL RED.— [ See Turkey Red.] 

ORGANDY- is French for "book muslin." It is a species of White 
Goods of great fineness and transparency, woven plain, barred figured 
and striped. 

ORGANZINK. — A name applied to silk which after having been first 
wound off from the cocoons into hanks, is then placed on a winding ma- 
chine, which reels off the hanks on to wooden reels. These are then 
placed on spindles, and the fibres of each are made to pass through a 
minute hole and. small hollow brush,- which, together clean the thread 
•and remove any knots or projections from it, throwing it at the same 
time into hank's again. Then the threads of two hanks are taken and 
again reeled off, this time on to one hank, being twisted together to the 
lefty then two Of these are taken, their ends laid, together, and twisted 
to theW^fct.''- These operations, consisting! -of 'Windings cleaning-, twist- 
ing and doubling, constitute'fOrganzine: silkj:; i : It, is;i extensively i used . in 



116 OSNABURG 

the manufacture of poplins, velvet, plush, etc., and is the strongest and 
best silk yarn used in any kind of weaving - . 

OSNABURG.— So called from the fact that the first heavy cotton 
cloth manufactured in England was woven in the district of Osnaburg. 
It is the name applied in the United States to a coarse cotton fabric 
made in the South, both in plain unbleached and fancy stripes and 
plaids, used largely by the negoes for dresses and shirts. 

OTTOMAN dress silk is distinguished by having a heavy cord, ex- 
tending from selvage to selvage of the web. Ottoman cords in silk and 
woolen dress goods are similar in appearance to fine Marseilles or Pique 
in cotton, and are sometimes termed Bedford Cords. 



PALETOT. — A ladies loose outer garment or wrap. The word is 
directly derived from the French, but is further traceable to palla, a long 
uppar garment and to-qite, a cap. Our present paletot is a loose, light- 
weight wrap with sleeves, cape and hanging hood. 

PANTALOONS. — This term is derived from Pantalone, a ridiculous 
character in Italian Comedy, and a buffoon in pantomine, who first 
wore ' 'breeches" and ' 'stockings" that were all of one piece. [See Hose. ] 
This character took his name from Pantaleon, the patron saint of Venice, 
and hence is a personal name very frequent among the Italians, and 
sometimes applied to each other as a nickname. Pantaloons come into 
general popularity with the French revolution, when puffed breeches 
and tights, laces and gewgaws subsided and g"ave way to the compara- 
ratively simple dress which characterized that period, although panta- 
loon at this time only came to the middle of the calf of the leg, where 
they were met by half top-boots, they soon afterward extended in length 
to rest upon the foot. 

PARAMATTA CLOTH.— This is a kind of bombazine, the weft of 
which is of worsted, and the warp of cotton. It is employed as a dress 
material for the purpose of mourning. When it was first introduced it 
was composed of a silk warp and worsted weft. This cloth had its 
origin in Bradford, England, but the name it bears was derived from a 
town in New South Wales, oh account, in all probability, of the wool of 
which it was composed being imported thence. 



PEARL BUTTONS 117 

PASSAMENTERIE . — Passement is French for lace, and passemen- 
terie is French for lace-work. The trimming's known by this name is 
a kind of gimp work, covered with beads and silk. From 1880 to 1885 it 
was much used for trimming ladies cloaks and wraps, as well as dresses. 

PEARL DRESS BUTTONS.— In pearl dress buttons, 16 line is the 
smallest size, while S, 10, 12, 14 and 16 lines ( pearl only ) count for 
ladies' gloves and men's dress shirts. The general run in sizes of pearl 
buttons is from 16 to 30 for dresses. Sizes 30 to 60 are for ladies' cloaks 
and saques. 

PEAU DE SOIE. — Soie is French for silk, and peau is also a French 
word signifying hide or leather. The silk received this name on account 
of its fine even grain, or. leather-like surface. Like ordinary gros-grain 
Peau de Soie is woven with a rib or grain, but so fine and close as to 
produce a surface very similar to a plain woven fabric. [See Silk.] 
The best grades of Peau de Soie are finished on both sides exactly alike, 
but cheaper qualities are single faced. 

PEKIN is a French term employed to denote a silk stuff, made in al- 
ternate stripes of satin and velvet, which vary in width in the different 
pieces manufactured. Pekin silk goods may be had in black and all 
colors, and are much used as portions of dresses and trimmings. There 
are also Pekin gauzes, the gauze being substituted for the satin stripe. 

PELISSE. — (From French, pelisse, a skin of fur.) Originally a long 
g-arment made of fur; hence, a garment lined or trimmed with fur. At 
present, a lady's cloak of silk or other material with sleeves, and with 
or without fur, shorter and looser than the Newmarket q. v. 

PENANG is similar to percale, being better and heavier. It owes its 
name to the Island of Penang, whence it was formerly exported in large 
quantities from England. 

PERCALE is a Fre nch word signifying cambric muslin. Percale, 
proper, is a fine medium weight muslin, slightly sized, printed with 
small figures and stripes and one yard wide; it was introduced in this 
country about twenty-five years ago. 

PICOT (pe-ko) is a French word indicating a little knob or splinter; 
When used to designate ribbons it has the same meaning as applied to 
"purl" in lace-making; small attached loops or circles. A small loop 
forming part of an ornamental edging, consisting of a thread upon which 
other thread has been wound, or to which small stitches or knots have 
been added. \ 

PILE is from Latin pilus, hair. In dry goods parlance it indicates 1 
the fine, hairy substance on the surface of cloth; particularly applied' tb v 
velvet, plush'; fustian and carpeting. [See Nap.]' 



118 PILOT CLOTH 

PILOT CLOTH received its name in the palmy days of Mississippi 
river steamboating. It was customary for the pilots of the boats, as well 
as other officers, to be uniformed, and the cloth adopted was a medium- 
heavy, smooth, blue fabric similar to Kersey or the old Beaver minus the 
nap on the wrong- side. At present it is mainly carried by tailors for 
making- overcoats, and is usually indigo blue in color, somewhat heavier 
than ordinary Kersey, with a shorter and closer nap. 

PILLOW. — The "pillow" is a round or oval board stuffed so as to form 
a cushion and is placed upon the knees of the workman. On this pillow 
a stiff piece of parchment is fixed with small holes pricked through to 
mark the pattern. Through these holes pins are stuck into the cushion. 
The threads with which the lace is formed are wound upon "bobbins," 
small round pieces of wood, about the size of a pencil, having- round 
their upper ends a deep groove, so formed as to reduce the bobbin to a 
thin neck, on which the thread is wound, a separate bobbin being' used 
for each thread. By the twisting - and crossing - of these threads the 
ground of the lace is formed. The pattern or figure, technically called 
"g-imp," is made by interweaving - a thread much thicker than that 
forming - the groundwork, according - to the design, penciled out on the 
parchment. Such has been the pillow, and the method of using - it, with 
but slight variation, since its first introduction. 

PINS. — There is no article used in dress which is of g-reater antiquity 
than the little pin. It has been in use since man and woman first felt 
the desire to shield their bodies from the gaze of the curious. First as 
the natural thorn it came into being, and the thorn seems to have given 
the pin its shape, when later they were made of iron, bronze and brass. 
The first pins manufactured in this country was in Carolina in 1775. " 
The beautiful automatic machinery by which pins are made today and 
the no less intricate machines by which they are stuck into papers are 
wonderful when compared with former methods of manufacture. In a 
pin making machine as now used wire of suitable size running off of a 
reel, is drawn in and straightened by passing between studs set in a 
table. When a pin length has entered it is caught by lateral jaws, be- 
yond which enough of the end projects to form a pin head. Against 
this head a steel punch advances and flattens the wire by a die arrange- 
ment into the form of a head. The pin length is immediately cut off 
and dropped into a slit just large enough to pass through, but retain the 
head. The pins are consequently suspended by the head while their 
points are held against a revolving file-cut steel roller — along the face 
of which thev are carried by gravition till the)'' fall out at the end, well 
pointed pins. The pins are next purified by boiling in weak beer. 
They are then placed in pans and- covered with water over which a 
quantity of bitartrate of .potash is sprinkled and after boiling several 



PINS • 119 

hours both the brass and iron pins are coated with a thin deposit of tin, 
which gives them their silvery appearance. They are then washed in 
clean water and dried by revolving - in a barrel mixed with dry bran or 
fine sawdust, from which last operation they are "winnowed" finished 
pins. 

In the 14th century the English passed a law allowing" the pin 
maker to sell them in open shop only on the 1st and 2nd of each January. 
It was then that the court ladies and city dames of low and high de- 
gree flocked to the shops to buy them, having first been provided with 
money by their husbands, called "pin money." When pins became 
cheap and common, the ladies spent their allowances on other fancies, 
but the term "pin money'' still remained in vogue. 

English pins were originally termed "corkings" or "corking pins," 
and were made in three different' sizes, viz: Large corkings, middle 
corkings and short corkings. At present the brass pins which are put up 
"full count," that is, 400 pins per paper, are termed Ne Plus Ultra (the 
utmost point, completeness, perfection) and the sizes are denoted by 
the letters "M. C." large (middle corkings); "S. C." medium (short 
corkings); "F. ><>" small, and "BB" very small. Brass pins are also 
put up in papers of 275 pins, and sold at a much less price, but these are 
not branded ne plus ultra. Adamantine pins are usually put up 250 to 
275 pins per paper, and are numbered from 2 large to 5 small. 

PIQUE. — A cheap ribbed or corded white cotton fabric resembling 
Marseilles, but of inferior quality. Sometimes printed in small patterns. 

PLUSH.— This word is derived from Fr. peluch, and that from Latin 
pilus, hair, from the fact that when plush was first manufactured it was 
made with a worsted foundation and a pile of goats' hair or mohair. 
The use of this fabric dates back to the 16th century, but cannot be 
traced to any earlier period. Plush may be described roughl}- as long, 
napped velvet, and anj r kind of material may be used in its manufacture 
— cotton, silk, wool, or any kind of hair — the distinction from velvet be- 
ing found in the longer, and less dense pile of plush. The process employed 
in weaving it will be found under the heads of Weaving and Velvet. 
The silk plush now so extensivel}- used for dress and milliner}- purposes 
is made on a cotton foundation, the ground-warp frequent^ being dyed 
the same color of the silk pile-warp. Silk plush having a longer and 
less dense pile than silk velvet, the pile admits of being brushed from 
side to side much easier, thus reflecting the rays of light to a much bet- 
ter advantag-u. and producing a watered or marbled appearance. One 
form of plush is that which has taken the place of the napped beaver- 
felt in the dress hats of gentlemen, which are now consequently known 
as "silk" hats. [See Hats.] All-silk plushes are not made in this 
country, but cotton back and mohair plushes are produced in fairly good 



120 - PLUSH 

qualities, and in some instances equal the goads of Europe, Crimped 
goods for furniture use are manufactured in large quantities in Connec- 
ticut. One plush power loom will average 10 to 12 yards per 
week, while the hand looms used extensively in Philadelphia and alto- 
gether in England, make much less. The railroads of this country' con- 
sume about20,000 yards of plain plush for car seats per ) r ear, and ts-p to 
the present time this has been largely supplied by home mills. The pres- 
ent high tariff just laid on these goods it is claimed was passed with the 
intention of developing this industry in the U. S. The duty on Mohair 
and Wool Plush is 48 cents per pound and 60 per cent, ad valorem; on 
Plushes, Velvets and other pile fabrics containing less than 75 per cent, 
in weight of silk, exclusive of selvages, the tariff is $1.50 per pound 
weight and 15 per cent, ad valorem. Velveteens, corduroys, and other 
pile fabrics composed of cotton, not bleached, 10 cents per square yard 
and 20 per cent, ad valorem. 

POLO CxVPS are distinguished by having neither peak nor roll, usu- 
ally made of silk, low, square-crowned and soft. Men's traveling caps 
are made polo style. 

POMPADOUR is a pattern for silk fabrics, in which some small de- 
sign of leaves and flowers, with the colors pink and blue, intermingled, 
and frequently brightened with gold, is used. There are many modifi- 
' cations of this style. Pompadour Parasol is a form of parasol used by 
women about 1860, having a folding handle and generally covered with 
Moire Antique or other heavy silk. 

PONCEAU. — Prom Latin puniceus, red, poppy-corn color — a flame 
color. In dyeing, the name for various coal-tar colors of different 
shades of red. 

PONCHO. — (ponc-ko) A kind of covering worn by the Spanish 
Americans, having the form of a blanket, with a slit in the middle for 
the head to pass through. Also a name given to a rubber blanket used 
by soldiers and campers, to either throw over them at night, or to cover 
their laps while riding or driving; made with a slit in the center through 
which the lines may be passed. 

PONGEE SILK is properly a thin, soft, all silk fabric woven from 
the natural uncolored raw silk, without further manipulation after it 
leaves the cocoon than to "boil it out of the gum." Formerly our entire 
supply of this silk was imported from China and Japan, where it was 
woven on the primitive hand looms. At present it is largely produced 
in the United States. There is another fabric called Pongee, which 
consists of a silk warp and a wool filling, often found in shades of silver 
grey anil brown, and of a soft and glossy appearance. 

Pongee is said to be a corruption of Chinese pun hi, ' own loom, ' or 



PONGEE SILK 121 

of pun chilv, ' own weaving - , ' (as if home made) but all silks woven in 
China are stamped with one or the other of these phrases, along- with 
the name of the house selling them. According to another authority 
the word Pongee is a corruption of pon chi, 'native silk.' Native Pon- 
gee silk resembles the Tusarsilk of India q. v., woven principallvin the 
province of Shantung q. \\, from the cocoons of a wild silk worm which 
feeds on the leaves of the scrub oak. The finest kinds, bleached, dyed 
or figured, after importation are known in the trade as China silks q. v. 

POPLIN. — In the 15th century a fabric was woven at Avignon, France, 
(which at that time was a papal diocese) and called "papaline, " in 
compliment to the reigning Pope; this fabric was made of silk and was 
much esteemed, vast quantities being manufactured to supply the gor- 
geous church vestments and hangings then in use. An imitation of 
this material was introduced into England and the name corrupted to 
"Poplin," which has been adopted in this country. In 1775 the manu- 
facture was introduced into Ireland, by French Protestant refugees, and 
from that time to the present, Irish Poplins have been famous. The 
best modern Poplins consist of a warp of silk and a filling- of fine wool, 
gives substance combined with great softness and elasticity to the ma- 
terial. Cotton and linen are substituted, wholly or partially, in making 
cheap goods, but they are very inferior in beauty to the true Poplins. 
Poplins, g which once were harsh and consequently interfered with the 
draping of a dress, are now woven with such perfection that they equal 
the finest and softest pure silk fabrics. 

PORTIERE is the French word for "door curtain;" usually a heavy 
curtain or drapery, made of chenille or the like, attached to a pole 
placed horizontally over a doorway or arch, and used instead of a swing- 
ing door. 

PURL, in lace making, is to finish or adorn the edge with small cir- 
cles or loops, consisting- of merely a single thread, produced either by 
machine or hand-work. The word is derived from French purfle, to 
adorn or embellish. 

PURPLE. — The high estimation in which purple has been held, dates 
back to a very remote period. The word is exceedingl)- common in the 
Scriptures, appearing there to sometimes signify a material of the name, 
and again as cloth of which the texture was lost sight of in the value of 
the color. Tradition ascribes the discovery of the purple dye to a dog, 
which biting the Perpura mollusk, from which the dye is derived, had 
its mouth stained with the color. The discovery is said to have been 
made, and the manufacture carried on, at Tyre, the ancient city of 
Phoenicia, or Canaan, lying between northern Palestine and Syria on 
the Mediterranean. 



122 PURPLE 

It is certain that the best purple dye was obtained from these mollusks, 
but it is almost equally as certain that the name of Tyrian Purple was 
given to more fabrics than could possible have made or dyed at Tyre, 
or even dyed elsewhere from the purple secretions of the Purpura shell 
fish. In the time of Augustus the price of dyeing- a pound of wool with 
genuine Tvrian purple was $160; and in Nero's reign to wear this costly 
color without his authority was punished with death; a restrictive law 
which probably indicates that the particular sort of it known as Tyrian 
purple, ma}' from its very great cost, have been confined to the exclusive 
use of the wealthy. So much confusion exists in the statements con- 
cerning these "fine" and "ordinary'" purples that not a few have con- 
sidered the whole matter of the Purpura shell-fiish dye a sort of myth; 
not that there is no truth in the shell-fish producing a dye — that cannot 
be gainsaid — but that the many wonderful stories told about it in ancient 
times were used as a blind to cover and conceal the knowledge of coch- 
ineal and a tin mordant, which it is maintained the Tyrians possessed. 
When we consider the simple mode t>f fishing practiced at that time, 
and the small intensity of the color, which required three pounds of the 
liquor to one pound of wool, we should say the3* could not have had a 
large trade; since according to modern researches into this dye, one 
single Purpura mollusk produces only about one drop of the liquor, then 
it would take 10,000 fish to dye one pound of wool. By whatever means 
the dye was produced, the purple of ancient times was the most beautiful, 
brilliant and dazzling of all colors in the world, and for ages has been 
the symbol of imperial power and majesty. 



Q 



QUILTS. — The Honeycomb Quilt, us its name implies, is a cloth 
with the figures on its surface formed by raised ridges, both warp and 
weft way. This is generally woven with bleached knitting-cotton, two 
or three double. Grecian Quilts are also woven of bleached knitting- 
cotton, and yet the coarse threads give a smooth, glossy surface in con- 
sequence of the weave being- on the damask principle — that is, the figure 
may be formed in a weft-satin; while the ground is a warp-satin weave. 
The Alhambra Quilts are woven of various designs, but with different 
colored yarns. 



EADZIMIR 123 



R 



RADZIMIR is synonymous with the French L'ns dp St. Maur, cloth of 
St. Maur. This is a rich description of dress silk in which a Marseilles 
or cut cashmere effect is produced, by dropping- a thread of weft at reg- 
ular intervals, generally about a sixteenth to a quarter of an inch apart. 
This produces a sunken line from side to side of the web, alike both on 
back and face. Between the sunken lines it is woven tine and close like 
a Peau de Soie, q. v. 

REED. — That part of a loom by which the threads are separated in 
weaving-; also a family of tall grasses with jointed stalks; also a flexible 
metal stay used by ladies for distending- their dress skirts behind; these 
come put up in setts of three, different sizes. 

REEL. — To reel silk or thread is to wind it round an appropriate 
frame, so as to make a skein of it. Wool, cotton and spun silk are each 
first carded and spun, and then reeled, but "reel" silk is reeled directly 
from the cocoon. 

REMNANT. — A contraction of remanent, from Latin remanes; that 
which is left behind or remains. 

REP. — (Corrupted from rib.) A particular style of weaving, in which 
the surface presents a transverse-ribbed appearance, distinguished by 
being closely corded in diagonal lines. Furniture Rep is a flowered cot- 
ton goods woven in this manner. The word is also applied to a thin, 
worsted goods. 

REPELLENTS are solid colored, plain woven, six-quarter wide cloths 
used for making a cheap grade of ladies' and children's wraps, and com- 
monly known as waterproof; ordinarily of cotton warp and wool filling, 
though sometimes made of pure wool. Originally they were woven so 
close and thick as to repel rain or moisture, hence the name. "Repel- 
lent," or "Waterproof." 

RETAIL is from French retailler, "to cut again" — from re, again, and 
tattler, to cut; hence, also, our word, tailor. 

RIBBONS have continued almost uniformly in favor from the 14th 
century until now, Fashion, even indulging in but few fluctuations in 
all this time. It is mentioned that ribbons were first woven on the band* 
or borders of garments and were narrow, like a rib, hence the origin of 
the word ribband, which was the old English and the present French 
term for our Ribbon. It will doubtless be a surprise to many to learn 



124 RIBBONS 

of the profusion in which they were worn in 1650 — 1700 by the men of 
Europe. Every portion of their attire was trimmed with them. Evelyn, 
describing- the dress of a fop of his time, says: "It was a fine silken 
thing- which I espied walking th' other day through Westminster Hall, 
that had as much ribbon about him as would have plundered six shops 
and set up twenty country pedlers. All his body was drest like a May 
pole. A frigate, newly rigg'd, kept not half such a clatter in a storm 
as this puppet's streamers did when the wind was in his shrouds; the 
motion was wonderful to behold, and the well-chosen colours were red, 
orange and blue, of well-grain'd satin, which argued a happy fancy." 

The terms blue ribbon and red ribbon, bestowed by Fairs and other 
competitive exhibitions as marks of excellence, originated in England, 
on account of a badge of blue ribbon being used to designate the Order 
of the Garter, which is the highest order of English Knighthood, [See 
Garter], and the red ribbon badge designating the Order of Bath, the 
next highest in rank. 

The different widths or "numbers" of ribbons were formerly denoted 
by the thickness of so man}* penny pieces. The old English penny was 
about the size of our silver dollar, and a ribbon the width of one of these 
pennies set up edgewise was called No. 1; a ribbon the width of two 
pennies set up edgewise was No. 2; a ribbon as wide as seven of them 
was No. 7, and so on; thus the custom of numbering origieated and is 
still retained. Ribbons all measure ten yards to the bolt and never ex- 
ceed nine inches in width. 

The city of St. Etienne in France is the principal seat of ribbon man- 
ufacture in the world, though many are made at Basel, in Switzerland; 
Crefeld, Germany, and Coventry, England. France and Switzerland 
make the best ribbons on account of using only hand looms, which pre- 
serve a perfect evenness of tension ane disposition of the threads; the 
product of power looms is disposed to "cockle" or crimp in places. All 
of our ribbons are imported, and the tariff is 50 per cent, ad valorem. 

Cotton Velvet Ribbons are cut in strips from fine velvets, and the 
edges having no selvage, are sized to prevent ravelling. They are made 
in lengths of twelve yards, the numbers running 1 to 40. They are also 
produced in a variety of colors, besides black, and the widths run from 
1, V/j. and 2 inches up to 10 inches, then in even numbers up tO 20 inch- 
es, and then to 24, 30 and 40 inches. The lengths of twelve oards nom- 
inally, run short in cotton ribbon velvets, as also in the inferior kinds of 
silk velvet ribbons. 



RUCHING: — A kind of ruffled or goffered quilling, chiefly used for 
ladies' neckwear, made of blonde net, ribbon, lace or other material. 



SACK CLOTH 125 



SACKCLOTH. — A penitential fabric, The ancients, in case of heavy 
affliction, laid aside the garments best suited to their case and put on 
Sackcloth which was made of coarse, short hairs of animals, twisted to- 
gether and used for both warp and weft; this coarse, prickly material 
being- made into garments which fit close like a sack, was worn to inflict 
personal discomfort in cases of grief or penance. 

SATIN. — When Satin first appeared in trade, it was called round the 
shores of the Mediterranean. "Aceytuni". The term slipped through 
early Italian lips into '•Zetani"; coming westward, this name in its turn 
dropped its 4' and smoothed itself into "Satin". It was first imported 
into England from China in the 14th century, since which time Satin 
has been a constant and important article of commerce. In the weav- 
ing of other silken fabrics, the warp and filling intersect each other 
every aletrenate time, as in the case of any regular plain weaving,but in 
Satin it is the fine silk warp only which shows on the smooth, lustrous 
surface of the fabric. The filling is completely hidden on the surface. 
Instead of the warp passing under the filling every other time, it passes 
over 8 (10, 12 or 20, according as may be desired) filling threads, then 
under one and over 8 more, and so on, producing an even, close and 
smooth surface, which is capaple of reflecting the rays of light very en- 
tire, the fabric thus acquiring that lustre and brilliancy which particu- 
larly distinguish it. The filling (or back) in ordinary qualities is cotton 
or linen, while the finest grades, such Satin de Lyon, are all silk. When 
first taken out of the loom Satins are somewhat flossy, and they are 
"dressed" by being rolled on heated metal cylinders, which operation 
imparts to them a more brilliant lustre. ■ 

SATIN CLOTH or SATIN DE LAINE.— This a French woolen ma- 
terial of satin make, having a smooth face. It is employed for women's 
dresses, is produced in most colors, and is of stout quality and durable. 
In width it measures from 27 to 30 inches, and is otherwise known by 
its French name, Satin de Laine. 

SATIN DE LYONS is a fine quality of lustrous satin, produced at 
Lyons. France, having a silk back. There is also another popular va- 
riety of silk under this same name which has less lustre than the ordin- 
ary fine all-silk satins, and is of a thinner quality. The back is twilled, 
and it is much used for linings. 



126 SATIN DU CHESS 

SATIN DU CHESS is the name applied to the heaviest grade of pure 
silk dress fabric. It is woven with a grain so fine that it does not pro- 
duce a "grain" effect, but is rather on the order of a plain weave, the 
surface being appapentlv composed of minute elevations and depressions 
'or "nicked", similar to a peau-de-soie. 

SATEEN is printed and woven by the same processes as calico, ex- 
cept that Sateen is woven twilled on three, four or rive harness, which 
enables the manufacturer to make a sort of satin face. Satin is usually 
woven on sixteen harness, that is each warp thread passes over fifteen 
filling threads and then under one, over fifteen more and under one, and 
so on. French Sateen is "quarter satin" — the warp threads passing over 
four wefts, and under one and so on. 

SATINET. — This name signifies a clothing material similar to casi- 
net. It is made with a cotton warp and a rilling of short, interior or 
>hoddy wool, which is mixed with enough long wool to enable it to be 
spun; and is woven in a way as to bring the filling to the face of the 
cloth. On leaving the loom it is fulled, sheared down smooth and the 
pattern printed on much after the same manner that figures are printed 
on calico. In the old style of weaving- the cotton warp threads show 
on the back, while in the later methods the warp runs through the centre, 
the wool filling- being the same on both sides. Large quantities of sati- 
nets are produced m New England, there being in all 60 mills, repre- 
senting 186 sets of machinery. A single set running" on standard goods 
turns out 300 yards per day, making- the total product of the 186 sets 
55,8:)0 yards per day or 1,674,000 }-ards per month. The averagv value 
of these varieties at the mills is about 25 cents though a good quality is 
sold from 35 to 42 cents; single width. Satinet is but from in to 15 cents 
cheaper than Union Cassimere, which is much to be preferred, on account 
of the pattern being woven into the body of the goods, instead of simply 
being- stamped on, as in Case of Satinets. 

SATIN REGENCE is a very rich and expensive description of dress 
silk, woven with a satin surface broken by line sunken lines, extending 
across the web from selvag-e to selvage, This peculiar weave throws 
the back of the fabric into an Ottoman q. v. pattern, bv which it may 
always be distinguished. It is among- the costliest of modern silk dress 
fabrics, the importers' price frequently being from two to three dollars 
per yard. 

SATIN RHADAME has a satin face crossed and broken by fine 
twilled lines, extending diagonally across the web. It is a lustrous-silk 
fabric largely used for line silk dresses, made both all silk and cotton 
backed. 



SATIN ROYAL 127 

SATIN ROYAL is the name applied to a very fine and expensive va- 
riety of silk dress fabric. It has a glossy satin finish on both sides, 
each face being- crossed by fine twills, or sunken lines, after the manner 
of Satin Rh.ada.me. It is always made of pure silk, and, unlike Rhadame, 

both sides are finished exactly alike. 

SATIN SURAH is a medium heavy satin faced material, the surface 
of which is crossed and broken by a round cord or twill, extending- di- 
agonally across the web. 

SCRIM. — ( From French Pscrim, a shield or protection.) A soft and 
loose woven cotton fabric, printed with large variegated patterns, used 
for window curtains or window drapery, and sometimes as a cheap sub- 
stitute for white lace curtains. 

SEALSKIN CLOTH.— The material used for this kind of cloth is 
the finest kind of mohair, and the shade given by dyeing is exactly 
similar to the seal fur. It is manufactured at Yorkshire, England, and 
is used for ladies' outdoor jackets. This cloth must not be confounded 
with "silk sealskin," which is composed of wild Tussar silk, and also 
made in imitation of sealskin fur, used for ladies' caps, cloaks, mantles, 
trimming-, etc. 

SEBASTOPOL.— [See Cut Cashmere.] 

SERGE. -(From Lat. sencus, silken. ) In England in the 12th century, 
Serges of silk were manufactured and used for men's clothing: The 
twill of this Silk Serge was of flat appearance and woven curiously line. 
This was soon imitated in wool, and for six hundred years was known 
as Wool Serge, being used almost exclusively for men's clothing. In 
weight and texture it belongs to the flannel family; woven in a tine 
twill with a "worsted" warp and a "woolen" fiilling, which accounts 
for the springy, elastic nature of true Serge. It is recognized by its 
smooth and comparatively hard and wiry surface. 

Fabrics under the general title of Serge may be had in either silk or 
wool. At present some of those made of the latter material are smooth 
<o i > > . l sties of the cloth; others are only sm >oth on one side --md wooly 
on the other, while varieties are manufactured rough and woolv on both 
sides. French Flannel Serge or Serge de Berri is composed of long 
wool, and has somewhat the appearance of India Cashmere. It it a 
French-made woolen stuff, so called from being produced in the province 
de Berri. Serge Cloth is smooth on one side and rough on the other. 
'Witney Serges arc wooly and heavy throughout. Silk Serge is em- 
ployed in making the most costly mantles, and by tailors for the lining 
of coats. Pompadour Flannel Serges are so designated on account of 
the small dowel design with which they are decorated. The coarse and 
heavy kinds, employed for upholsterv, are of double width, whether f 
wool or silk: the width of ordinary Dress Serges run from about 30 to 
3(> inches. 



128 .« SEWING SILK 

SEWING SILK comes put up 50 and 100 yards to the spool; black in 
sizes 000, 00, 0, A, B, C, D and E, from fine to coarse in the order 
named; colors are made in size A only, that being- the medium and most 
used number. 

. SHAKER FLANNEL.— Shaker is the name of a religious sect which 
emigrated to this country in 1774. and colonized in different parts of 
the East. These people live together in communities and possess large 
tracts of land, flour and woolen mills, etc., which they own in common. 
They have extensive gardens connected with their settlements, cultivate 
flowers and medicinal herbs, and practice farming- and free-love along 
with other manufacturing industries. The flannels which they at one 
time made of mixed wool and cotton, took their name. The Shaker 
flannel of the present is a soft finished, slightly-napped material, cotton 
warp and woolen weft, in color plain white or plain red. There are 
also many all wool and all cotton flannels called Shaker, on account of 
their soft finish and nappy surface. 

SHANTUNG PONGEE SILK.— This is a soft, undyed and undressed 
Chinese washing silk, and much resembles Hindoo goods of the same 
character, but somewhat duller in color. The various qualities are uni- 
formly 19 inches in width, and differ respectively in price, for the piece 
of twenty yards. Shantung- is the province in which the silk is manu- 
factured. [See Pongke and India Silks.] 

SHEEP-GUT is known in commerce as cat-gut, and is made of the 
twisted intestines of sheep. Whip cord, hatters 1 cord, bow string, 
cloakmakers' cord, violin, guitar and harp strings are made of sheep- gut 
and variously prepared. 

SHEER. — In nautical parlance it means a longitudinal curve or bend 
of a ship's sides. It is also applied to fabrics that are very fine and thin, 
which are called sheer, being very soft and pliable. 

SHEETINGS and SHIRTINGS.— Common bleached and unbleached 
sheeting and shirting range in width from 24 to 108 inches; in weight, 
from l l /z square yards to the pound to 9 square yards to the pound; in 
threads to the inch, from 64 to 88, each way. A power loom weaves 
yards per hour, and one young woman can tend 12 looms. ; [See Muslin 
and Cotton.] 

SHETLAND SHAWLS.— The genuine Shetland shawls are made 
on the Shetland Islands, off the coast of Scotland. It is said that no 
knitting in the world exceeds in beauty the texture of these shawls. 
The wool from which the)" are made is obtained from a native breed of 
sheep, which resemble the famous Cashmere goats of Thibet. The wool 
for the finest shawls is pulled from the neck of the living animal, and is 
spun and prepared by the natives, and knitted into shawls two 



SHETLAND SHAWLS 129 

yards square, which are so light and fine that they can "be easily passed 
through a wedding - ring - ." Imitations of these are knitted in this coun- 
try by machinery, of ordinar} r wool, in various sizes and colors, and sold 
under the same name. 

SHIRT. — To the Arabs we are indebted for that almost indispensable 
article of apparel, the shirt; the Arabic name for which is camis, whence 
the Italian e&misca and the French chemise. It was called by our Saxon 
ancestors indiscriminately shirts or camise, and the undermost garments 
of both sexes were then of similar shape and materials. The word shirt 
is derived from the Saxon word sceort, short; and that from Latin curtus, 
having a similar meaning; hence curtail, etc., so that shirt is literally, 
a short garment. 

Some years ago a damask manufacturer in Scotland made a shirt 
entirely in the loom, without any kind of needlework, and sent it to the 
Hunterian Museum in Glasgow. "The neck, wristbands and shoulder- 
straps were of double cloth, neatly stitched; the buttonholes properly 
worked with appropriate stitch, the buttons sewed on, the gussets in- 
serted, and a ruffle added. On the breast the Glasgow arms were woven, 
and the motto, 'Let Glasgow Flourish.' " 

SHODDY or MUNGO. — These were formerly terms of opprobrium in 
connection with woolen manufactures, but are now recognized as a ma- 
terial of great utility for many purposes where "body" and warmth are 
more essential than toughness or elasticity. Shoddy consists of rags» 
and shreds of stockings, flannels and other soft woolen fabrics, clippings 
of fulled goods and tailors' waste, etc., etc., torn and reduced to frag- 
ments of the original fibre. These rags are first oiled and then passed 
through a machine significantly called the "devil," which literally 
rends the rag-s into minute particles that look more like dust'than fibres; 
this is done by the rapid rotation of a large cylinder, armed with pow- 
erful iron spikes, with equally strong toothed rollers revolving in an op- 
posite direction. Shoddy cannot be used without a due proportion of 
natural-length wool, usually one-fourth of pure wool being empioyed in 
spinning shoddy yarn. It finds its way into a very large proportion of 
woolen goods, such as linings, rug-s, wraps and heav}^ overcoating, drug- 
gets, blankets and satinets. Shoddy is practically a new source of tex- 
tile material, developed and brought into existence by restrictions placed 
on the importation of pure raw wool. If it were not for our high tariff 
on wool shipped into this country, it is stated, our manufacturers could 
purchase Australian or South American pure wool and make a strictly 
all wool fabric for the same price they can produce a "shoddy" article — 
thus giving the consumer from three to five times as good wearing ma- 
terial at the same cost. It is simply a question of protecting the fat ( 
and sleek sheep raisers of the U. S. at the expense of the wearers of the 
cheaper grades of woolen goods — the very people who can least afford 
to bear the burden. 



130 . SHOE THREAD 

SHOE THREAD is a strong", unbleached linen thread-yarn, made for 
the special use of shoemakers. The thread receives no twisting- by ma- 
chinery; the shoemakers doing- this for themselves, waxing- previously. 
Is put up in boxes of eight balls to the pound and sells at wholesale at 
$1.00 per box. 

SHOT SILK is a term used to describe silks in which the warp and 
weft are of different colors, produced by a "cbang-eable" or "shotted" 
effect. 

SICILLIAN. [See Mohair.] 

SILESIA was, when first made, a thin linen, or sleasy kind of hol- 
land q. v. thus called because made in Silesia, a country of Germany. 
Silesia is now made of line cotton, donble-fold, and on account of its 
sleasy and polished surface is always rolled in the form of a round bolt, 
in order to facilitate the handling-. Woven twilled, and dyed in all 
conceivable colors, also printed with stripes and figures. 

SILK.— 

Tin: Word Sii.k In Different Languages. 

l \.x:>uage 
Icelandic. 
Anglo Saxon. 
Danish. 
Eng-lish. 
Welsh. 

Latin. Middle Ages. 
Italian. 
German. 
French or English. 

Placed in the salubrious and mild air of Paradise, our first parents 
could hardly want any other covering than what decency required. 
Accordingly we find that the only article of dress was a belt of fig leaves; 
the same tree that afforded them food and shelter furnished them also 
with covering for their bodies. But when in consequence of their trans- 
gressions they were ejected from their blissful abode and forced to for- 
ever dwell in less favorable regions, a more substantial covering was 
necessary, and the ever merciful Great >r made them coats of skins. 

To indicate th.- extent to which their defendants have improved upon 
the original sheep-skin as a material and style of wearing apparel, is 
one of the prime Objects of this compilation. 

The immediate offspring of our first parents having subdued the sheep 
and learned how to make use of its wool; and another branch of the 
primordial family, known as the Egyptians, having first discovered anil 
cultivated flax, which thev used as a textile material on account of the 



W )K!) 


I. VKGL'AGK 


WORD 


Sir. 


Cprea. 


Silk.-, 


Se, 


Chinese. 


Siolc, 


Sirkek, 


Mongol. 


Silcke, 


Sirghe. 


Mandchou. 


Silk, 


Chcram, 


Armenian. 


Sirig, 


Seric, 


Arabic ami Sj 


rraic.Seda, 


Sericum, 


Latin. 


Seta, 


Chelk, 


Slavonian. 


Seide, 


Silke, 


Gothic. 


Satin, 



SILK 131 

blossom resembling- the etherial blue which surrounds the world, it re- 
mained for the post-diluvian decendants of Noah — the Chinese people, 
to discover and develop the cultivation of the silk worm. 

The utility and excellence of the material derived from the silk worm, 
according - to Chinese records, was discovered by their empress See-ling- 
shee, who with her own royal hands lirst unravelled the cocoons and 
wove the glossy filaments into a web of glorious sheen. The Chinese 
g-uarded the secret of their valuable art with vigilant jealously, and 
many centuries passed before the culture spread beyond the country of 
its origin. The importation of raw silk was first brought from China 
through India and Persia to the small but commercial island of Cos, I3-- 
ing oil the coast of Asia Minor, where lirst was woven those gauzy tis- 
sues which became so fashionable with the people of that early period. 
These were stigmatized by the moralists as anything but seeemly for 
women's wear. Seneca condemns them: "I behold," he says, "silken 
garments, if g-arments they can be called, which are a protection neither 
for the body nor for shame." We have an echo to the remarks of Seneca 
in the words of Solinus: "This is silk, in which at first women but now 
even men have been led by their craving after luxury, the shoiv rather 
than to clothe their bodies. 

Towards the beginning of the Christian era raw silk beg-an to form 
an imporant and costly item among the prized products of the East 
which came to Rome. Fine silk was at this time worth its weight in 
gold. Notwithstanding- its price and the restraints otherwise put on the 
use of silk, the trade grew. A monopoly of it was reserved by the gov- 
ernment under Justinian, who endeavored to divert the trade from the 
Persian route along which silk was then brought into the east of Europe. 
In this he failed, but subsequently hired two monks who had long- resided 
in China to return thither and learn the whole art and mystery of silk- 
worm rearing, and to make an attempt to bring back to Europe the 
materials necessarv for the cultivation of silk. This they effected by 
concealing the egg-s of the silk worm in a hollow cane. From the prec- 
ious contents of that bamboo tube brought from China in the year of 550, 
were produced all the races and varieties which has stocked the Western 
world, and which has given trade, prosperity and untold wealth to great 
communities for more than thirteen hundred years. 

About 1838 a speculative mania for the cultivation of silk developed 
itself with remarkable severity in the United States. It was caused 
principally through the representations of Samuel Whitmarsh as to- the 
capabilities of the South Sea Islands mulberry for feeding silk worms; 
and so intense was the excitement that fruit trees and crops of all kinds 
were displaced to make room for the wonderful mulberry bushes. In 
Pennsylvania as much as $300', 000 changed hands for the plants in one 



132 SILK 

week, and frequently the young- trees were sold three or four times over 
within a few days at ever-advancing- prices. Plants a single year's 
growth reached the ridiculous price of $1.00 each, at the hight of the 
fever, which, however, did not last long, for in 1839 the speculation 
collapsed; the famous mulberry was found to be no golden tree and the 
costlv plantations were uprooted. 

The most singular feature in connnection with the history of silk is 
the persistent efforts which have been made by monarchs and govern- 
ments to stimulate silk culture in their respective countries, efforts 
which continue to this day in the United States, England, India and 
other British colonies. These efforts to stimulate by bounties and other 
artificial means have in no instance resulted in permanent success. In 
truth raw silk can only be profiably brought to the market in countries 
where there is very cheap labor and an abundance of it. This is made 
plain bv the fact that China, Japan and Itaty are and always have been, 
the principal silk producing countries of the world. 

When the larvae of the silk worm is fully mature, and ready to change 
into the pupa condition, it proceeds to spin its cocoon, in which opera- 
tion it ejects from two little glands simultaneously a line or thread 
about 4000 yards in length, moving its head round in regular order con- 
tinuously for three days. The thread so ejected forms the raw silk of 
commerce, which as wound in the cocoon consists of two filaments — one 
from each gland— laid side by side and agglutinated into one fibre by 
their own adhesive constituents. The leaves of the white mulberr}* 
tree furnish the best food for silk worms. Trees which are three years 
old give about seven pounds of leaves apiece. An ounce (when born) of 
silk worms will consume during their life about 1,500 pounds of leaves. 
The consumption at the beginning is very small, but becomes quite 
large toward the end of his existence. To produce sufficient silk to make 
a dress pattern requires more time and capital than most people imagine. 
If we take one and a half pounds as the weight of pure silk required, 
this would be equal to two pounds of raw silk, because in extracting the 
gum from raw silk it loses 25 per cent, of its weight. To produce two 
pounds of raw silk require the entire silk obtained from 7000 to 8000 
worms allowing a percentage for death by disease and other casualties. 
It may be interesting to state that these 7000 or 8000 worms when newly 
hatched would scarcely weigh one-quarter of an ounce, yet in the course 
of their life, whieh only lasts from thirty to thirt3 7 -five days, they will 
consume about 400 pounds of leaves and increase in weight nine thou- 
sand times. Consumers of silk will not wonder at its high value when 
they consider that to raise two pounds of raw silk so much time and 
money is required. Besides the original cost of the eggs or young 
worm.-., tluv require feeding 1 several times daily with leaves. This is a 



SILK 133 

large item of expense if the cultivator does not grow and gather his 
own leaves, but is compelled to purchase them. Then follows the va- 
rious processes of gathering- the cocoons and reeling off the silk, throw- 
ing, scouring, dyeing and weaving. 

Here we must distinguish between the "reel" silk and the "spun" silk 
manufactures. The former embraces the operations peculiar to silk, 
dealing as they do with continuous fibres of great length; whereas in 
the spun silk industry the raw material is treated by methods similar to 
those of cotton and wool. It is only injured and unreelable cocoons, the 
husks of reeled cocoons and other waste from reeling which are treated 
by the spun silk processes, and the silk thereby produced loses much of 
its beauty, strength and brilliance, which are characteristic of reeled 
silk. 

Reeling. — The object of reeling is to bring together the filaments 
from two or more (generally four or five, but sometimes up to twenty) 
cocoons, and to form them into one continuous, uniform and regular 
strand, which constitutes the "raw silk" of commerce. The reel to 
which the silk in the cocoons is led consists of a light six-armed frame, 
enclosed within a wooden casing having a glass front, the enclosure 
being heated with steam pipes. The cocoons are then placed in warm 
water and the ends attached, when the reeling, or unrolling begins. To 
keep the strands from directly overlaying each other, and so adhering, 
the last "guide" through which the silk passes has a reciprocating mo- 
tion, whereby the fibre is distributed within certain limits over the reel. 

Throwing. — Raw silk being still too fine and delicate for ordinary 
use, undergoes a series of operations called throwing, the object of which 
is to twist and double it into more substantial yarn. According to the 
quality of raw silk used and the throwing operations undergone the 
principal classes of thrown silk are (1) "singles," which consist of a 
single strand of hard twisted raw silk, made up of the filaments of eight 
■or ten cocoons; (2) "tram" or weft thread consisting of two or three 
strands of raw silk not twisted before doubling and only lightly spun, 
(this is soft, flossy and comparatively weak) ; (3)"organzine," the thread 
used for warps, made» from two twisted strands spun in the contrary 
■direction to that in which they are separately twisted. 

Scouring. — Up to this time the silk fibre continues to be lustreless 
stiff and harsh, from the coating of gum on its surface. The removal 
of this gum is performed by the operation of boiling-off or scouring. 
To boil off, say 300 pounds of thrown silk, about sixty pounds of white 
soap is shred and dissolved in 200 gallons of pure water, at a heat of 195 
degrees, and in it the hanks of silk are^ immersed, being continually 
turned round so as to expose all portions equally to the solvent influence 
of the hot solution. For some purposes — making gauze, crape, etc.-- 



134 SILK 

the silk is not scoured, and for dyeing- silks certain colors, half -scouring; 
is practiced. The perfect scouring of French silks removes twenty-five 
per cent, of their weight, and China silks lose thirty per cent. Silks to 
be finished white, are bleached by exposure in a closed room to the fumes 
of burning sulphur, and are afterward washed in pure cold water to re- 
move all traces of sulphur. 

Spun Silk Manufactures. — The materials of the spun silk trade are 
1 i the floss, or loose outer fibres which surround ordinary cocoons; (2) 
remains of cocoons after the reelable silk has been removed; (3) waste 
from •'throwing" processes and from all the stages throug'h which the 
reeled silk passes in manufacturing; (4) torn or cut cocoons, and those 
that are pierced by the worm; (5) various wild silks which are either 
unreelable, or more profitably worked by carding. The -vaste-spiuner*s 
first duty is to bring this mass of diverse material into a fibrous or tow- 
like condition for spinning. This is effected by carding, after the same 
manner that wool is carded, and the spinning is done precisely as in the 
case of flax yarn. For twisting the thread into yarn of two, three or 
more strands, they are wound on the doubling frame and finally twisted 
as in dealing with raw silk. The finished yarn is very lumpy and re- 
quires very severe improving and singling-. Spun silk lacks the smooth- 
ness, brilliance and strength of raw silk yarn, but still it is an extremely 
valuable and useful material, and its comparative cheapness gives it an 
important place among the products of textile industry. It is used very 
largely in "mixed" fabrics, as well as for the cheaper ribbons, velvets, 
hat-plush, also in the hosiery and glove trade and for knitting and em- 
broidery threads. 

Into the dyeing of silk it is not here necessary to enter, except in so 
far as concerns the nefarious practice carried on in dye houses which 
has had a very detrimental influence on the silk trade. Silk, we have 
seen, loses about one-fourth of its weig-ht in scouring. To make up for 
this loss, it has long been the practice to dye dark colored silks "in the 
gum," the dye combining in these cases with the gum or gelatinous 
coating, and such silks are known as "souples." Both in the gum and 
in the scoured state, silk has the peculiar property of absorbing heavy 
dye matters, the remaining to all appearance undiminished in strength 
and lustre, bnt much added to in weight and thickness. Silk in the gum, 
it is found, absorbs these heavy dyes more freely than the scoured; so 
to use it for weighting there are these great inducements -a saving - of 
the costly and tedious scouring; a saving of the twenty five percent 
weight which would have been lost; and a surface on which much 
greater deception can be practiced. In dyeing a silk black, a certain 
amount of weight must be added; and the common practice in former 
times was to make up on the silk the twenty-five per cent, that was lost 
in scouring. Up to 1857 the utmost the dyer could add was "weight 



SILK 135 

for weight," but an accidental discovery that year put dyers in the way 
of using- tin salts in "weighting-, " with the result that they can now 
add forty ounces per pound to scoured silk; and 120 ounees to souples and 
150 ounces per pound to spun silks; yet they call these compounds "silk." 
The use of different chemicals enables dyers to weight all colors the 
same as black. The apparent lustre of the fabrics is preserved, because 
the silk fibre absorbs the heavy chemicals to a degree truly wonderful, 
and there is a semblance of silk with a good "body," that attracts pur- 
chasers. Very brief wear reveals the deception. The cohesiveness, 
the elasticity and the real strength of the fibre are greatly reduced. As 
a further evidence the goods have become highly combustible, but when 
burned with a match fail to give the usual <odor of animal matter by 
which burnt silk is so readily recognized. Another test is to pull out a 
thread and see if it is strong, and when it breaks it should fly into many 
little ends. If it stands this test, then rub one corner of the piece of 
silk in the hands as though washing it. After this operaion, if it be 
good silk, it will on being brushed out look as smooth as ever. If on hold- 
ing it up to the light and looking through it you see no traces of the 
rubbing, be sure the silk is good. The warp and weft should not differ 
much in size, and evenness should characterize the rib or it will not 
wear well. If silk be crushed together in the hand and suddenly re- 
leased, it should spring out quickly, leaving but little crease. This 
spring is called the verve, of which poor silk stuffs have little or none; 
and those adulturated with jute are also deficient in this characteristic. 
Pure silk does not stiffen when wetted and dried, and if black the dye 
should have a slight tinge of green when the light is seen through it. 
Stiff silks do not wear well, as they cannot be pure; the softer the tex- 
ture, the purer the silk. [See Grosgrain, Taffeta, Satin, Epingle, 
Chine, Faille, Ottoman, Armure, Peau de Soie, Satin du Chess, 
Gros des Indus, Satin de Lyon, Rhadame, Radizmer, Crape, &c] 

SILK STOCKINGS were first made in England in 1575, knitted by 
Queen Elizabeth's silk woman, Mistress Montague, who presented Her 
Majesty with a pair of silk ones, which she liked so well that she kept 
the donor knitting silk stockings as long as she lived. Before the end 
of her reign "stockings were made of silk, j^arnsey, worsted, crewel or 
the finest yarn that could be had. The fashion thus introduced by roy- 
al tv was soon adopted by the under ranks. 

SINGEING. — The operation of singeing when applied to cotton and 
woolen cloths is to effect the removal of surface -hairs or fibrous down 
on the surface of the cloth, raised up during the process of weaving. 
All kinds of cloths which are to have a "finished" surface must be sub- 
jected to this operation. This surface-down is got rid of by either of 
two methods. The apparatus generally used for hot -plate singeing con- 



136 SING KING 

sists of a furnace surmounted by a metal plate,, which is sometimes 
ridged on the surface. The cloth is first broug"lnt in contact with the 
brushes which raise the loose nap on the cloth, then passes over the white- 
hot metal plate or bar, and is again wound on to a roller.. Ga» singeing is 
■accomplished by drawing- the cloth through brushes and over a horizon- 
tal pipe perforated with rows of small holes, so that the gas issuing 
therefrom burns as a narrow sheet of flame. Cotton goods are after- 
ward bleached and calendered; woolen goods pressed, ironed arM folded. . 

SKEIN is a quantity of yarn after it is taken off the reel- The- 
skein contains 80 threads of 54 inches, and 7 skeins make a hank,. 18> 
hanks a spindle. 

SMYRNA RUGS. — [See Cakpkts.] 

SOCK is derived from the Latin socc its, a kind of low-heeled light shoe 
or buskin. The Socks of the early Anglo-Saxons were worn over the 
stocking, and within the shoe, differing in nothing but material from 
those worn at the present time. [See Hosiery.] 

STUFF is an English word applied to any woven textile, whether 
cotton, hair, silk, linen or wool, but more especially denoting those fab- 
rics made of "worsted" or long, combing wool, such as merinos, camlets, 
shalloons, tammies. Stuffs are distinguished from other woolen cloths 
by the absence of any nap or pile, and having little or no tendency to 
shrink when damp, nor to felt in the process of weaving. Stuffs, all 
those that are woven either plain or twilled, with spots and designs of 
various kinds, but in all the thread is laid bare, the superfluous fibres of 
wool being singed off by means of a red-hot iron. After the process of 
weaving and singeing, they are tightty rolled, soaked in hot water and 
boiled, then scoured, stacked or milled, and the moisture pressed out be- 
tween rollers. 

SURAH SILK, which is woven with a twill similar to serg-e in 
woolen goods, is a line, soft, twilled silk stuff, employed for dresses. 
It is distinguished from a foulard by its greater softness and flexibility 
which preserves it from creasing, and it has no dressing like the former. 
It is to be had in black, grey and white; and in various light colors of a 
delicate tint, and measures 26 inches in width. It bears a Hindoo 
name and is probably of Hindoo origin. 

SWISS is a variety of cotton cambric, manufactured at Zurich and St. 
Gall, in Switzerland, for a long period before being made elsewhere in 
Europe or the United States. It is a thin, sheer fabric woven rather 
open and slightly calendered, striped or dotted in the loom. Itisonly to 
be had in white and is chiefly employed for quillings, flounces of petti- 
coats and dress, and also for infants' wear. 



TABLE LINEN 137 



T 



TABBYING is another name for "watering-" fabrics, and has the 
same meaning- as "moire," except that it is usually applied to woolen 
materials instead of silk. 

TABINET. — A rich damasked cloth chiefly used for window curtains. 
It consists of a warp of silk and a weft of woolen yarn — of the same 
kind and quality as that used in making poplins. It is made in various 
soft-toned colors and has the appearance of fine damask, usually en- 
riched with diaper patterns. 

TABLE LINEN.— Table cloths, table napkins, tray napkins, damask 
slips, damask doyles, tea cloths, etc., are all included in the general 
term of "table linen." 

Table cloths may be had of various dimensions, and in either sing-le or 
double damask. They may be had from 2 yards square, or 2 yards by 2 x /i 
yards, or else of 2}^ yards by 3, 3y 2 , 4, 4#, 5, 5^ up to 8 yards in length, 
so as to dine from six to twenty persons; also, in due proportions, up to 10 
yards in length. 

Damask slips to spread over the end of a table, to match any of the 
table cloths named may be had of 22 inches in width, up to 27 inches. 

Tea-cloths, with doyles to match them, are made in white damask with 
colored borders, and checked in crossbars of ingrain colors; also in drab 
and coffee color. 

Dinner napkins are to be luid in single and double damask of three- 
quarters of a yard square, also of three-quarters of a yard by seven- 
eigths, also of seven-eigths by 1 yard. 

Damask doyles are manufacture in round, oval, or square form. 

Tray cloths are 1% yards square, and 1 yard by l l / A yards. 

Women servants' and kitchen table cloths may be had both in diaper 
and damask, of either 1^ yards in width or of 2 yards. 

Men servants' waiting thumb napkins may be had 18 inchss square; 
party napkins 22 inches square; fish napkins, 22 inches square, and break- 
fast napkins of damask, double damask, and with a small spot pattern 
of several dimensions. 

All these are produced in the best Irish linen manufactures, and the 
sizes are generally about the same as those produced in England. There 
are also bleached Bumsley and Scotch diaper cloths. [See Damask.] 



138 TARIFF 

TARIFF. — The word "tariff" is derived from Parifa, a town on the 
coast of southern Spain. This town received its name from Tarifa 
Malek, a Saracen chief, who landed at that point on the coast in 710, 
and during - the Moorish domination all vessels passing - through the 
straits of Gibralter were here compelled to pay duties or tribute to the 
savage chief; whence the word "tariff." As used at present the 
word indicates a list of g-oods, with the duties or customs to be paid for 
the same, either on importation or exportation. In the United States 
there can be no duties imposed on exports. Our tariff duties must be all 
laid on imports. 

A Protective Tariff is a law imposing duties on imports with the 
purpose of discouraging the use of products of foreign manufacture or 
origin, and of stimulating the home production of the same articles. 

It has been argued, with much plausibility, in the early stages 
and conditions of an industry, that it is politic to protect them against 
the unequal competition in their own markets with the more advanced 
arts and appliances of foreign countries, until they have by this means 
acquired abilit}- to stand upon their own merits; and this being once 
admitted, the transition is easy to the general doctrine that, since we 
find that there are alwa}-s commodities which other nations can produce 
much better and cheaper than we can produce ourselves, that it is wise 
and expedient to place a high tariff upon nearh* all foreign goods, either 
raw or manufactured, in order to protect our various native industries — 
wool, cotton and silk manufactures, sheep raisers, wine makers, sugar 
producers, timber owners, etc., etc. The true interests of the entire 
nation are thus lost sight of b}- the law-makers representing special 
localities, because protective duties carry the consequence that several 
parts of a nation have to pay one locality more of their own means for 
what they need, than they should have to pay the foreigner, and under 
a system of this kind the sources of public revenue, so far from being 
increased, are certain of being impaired. On the other hand there are 
imports so entirely of foreign origin, and so free from competition with 
native industry, that a large duty may be raised upon them in the custom 
house, without disturbing the freedom and equity of international trade. 
The question of tariffs thus appears to be capable of reasonable solution 
as long as it is kept within the circle of what is permanently expedient 
to the public revenue. When it passes beyond these bounds it launches 
into a sea of complicated errors. The self-interest that has force and in- 
fluence sufficient to discourag-e the imports of foreign commodities by 
protective duties, passes naturally onward to sellish ends, and thus tariff 
legislation and revisions deg-enerate into a "grab" and "dicker" for 
special interests. 

The present average tariff on woolen goods is <>2 per cent; the average 




TAFFETA 139 

on linen, jute and hemp manufactures is 28 per cent; on silk, 50 per cent; 
on cotton, 40 per cent. The import duties collected from these four 
manufactures comprise over 60 per cent of the entire tariff receipts of 
the government. 

T -CLOTH.— T-eloth is a plain cotton fabric manufactured in England 
for the Chinese and East India markets. It weighs about four ounces 
to the square yard, and is put up in bales of fifty pieces of twenty ^yards,, ' ^ 
. each. The letter T is stamped on each piece, hence the namelAoC^ 1 V_ 

TAFFETAf is derived from Bfersiaffi tajtah, to spin. A term of sfffie- 
what general application in the silk trade. It was formerly applied to 
all plain silks simply woven by regular alternations of the warp and 
weft, and is supposed to be the first kind of silk weaving known, even to 
the Chinese. For several hundred years Taffeta was a sort of generic 
term for all plain silks, regardless of weight or color, but in more recent 
times has come to signify any light, thin, plain-woven silk fabric with 
a considerable lustre or gloss, such as Summer Silk, etc. 

Octavio May, of Lyons, is held to be the first manufacturer of glossy 
taffeties; and tradition tells us the occasion of it. Octavio, it seems, 
was going backward in the world, and being unable to retrieve himself 
oy the manufacture of Taffeties, such as were then made, was one day 
musing on his misfortunes, and in musing chanced to chew a few threads 
of silk which he had in his mouth. His reverie being over, the silk he 
spit out seemed to shine and on that account engaged his attention. He 
was soon led to reflect on the reason; after a good deal of thought he 
-concluded that the lustre of that silk must come, 1st, From having 
pressed it between his teeth; 2d, From his having wet it with saliva, 
which had something glutinous in it; and 3d, From its having been f 
heated by the natural warmth of his mouth. All this he executed upon 
the next Taffeta he made, and immediately began to acquire immense 
riches to himself, and to the city of Lyons the reputation it still main- 
tains of giving the gloss to silks and plushes better than any other city 

in the world. 

/ 

TAMBOUR WORK, which is a sort of embroidery, is of eastern ori- 
gin, and was worked m China, Persia, India and Turkey long before it 
became known in Europe, and up to the present date it is still largely 
employed in the east, and the work there executed is much appreciated 
from the beautiful colors employed, and the labor expended on it. Until 
the middle of the last century, Tambour Work, except in Turkey and 
the Levant, was not known in Europe, but at that time it was intro- 
duced into Saxony and Switzerland, where it was worked only upon 
white muslin and cambric with white thread, and used to ornament 
dresses, curtains, caps, borders and all varieties of white trimmings. 



140 TAMISE CLOTH 

TAMISE CLOTH. — A fine, plain-woven, woolen dress fabric, the 
warp and filling - of which are of exactly the same size, woven in equal 
proportions; it is of a close and firmer weave than nun's veiling - , and 
much finer and more delicate than bunting - . Taffeta tamise is the term 
applied to a Tamise cloth with a fine cross-ribbed surface. 

TAPESTRY.— To the retail salesman who throug-hout his business ex- 
perience has been accustomed to the monotony of selling - paper curtains,, 
linen Hollands, or occasionally a few yards of Notting-ham lace for win- 
dow decoration, it will be interesting - to learn something - of an histori- 
cal fabric which reached the heig-ht of the weaver's art about the year 
1500. For richness of color, elaborate finish of detail and those aesthetic 
requirements of window and wall decoration, the Tapestry of this period 
rivaled the pictures of such celebrated painters as Raphael and Michael 
Ang-elo. Upon these Tapestries were represented as clearly as in 
any painting - , scenes from the bible and mythology, romances and his- 
torical subjects,' decorative work in which trees and foliage formed the 
main design, and the battles and victories of kings and princes. 
Though rich and varied in effect, the tapestry of this period was made 
with not more than twenty different tints of wool — haif tints and shades 
being got by "hatching" one color into another. The making of gen- 
uine Tapestry differs from ordinary fabric in that no visible weft is 
thrown completely across the loom, but the pattern is formed by stitches 
being knotted across the warp with a wooden needle called a "broach". 
It is a sort of a link between regular woven work and embroidery, from 
which it differs in having its stitches applied not to the finished web, 
but to the stretched warpthreads onl} T , the filling stitches being put in 
loosely and carefully pressed home, so that the warp strings are almost 
completely hidden. 

Gobelin Tapestry received its name from a family of dyers who 
settled in Paris in 1476. The head of the family was Giles Gobelin. 
It was he who discovered a peculiar kind of scarlet dye, and he expended 
so much money on his dyeing establishment that it was named by the 
common people, la foil ie Gobelin. To the dye works there was added in 
the 16th century a manufactory of tapestry. So rapidly did the wealth 
of the family (descended from the original founder of the factory — Giles 
Gobelin) increase, that some of them forsook the trade and purchased 
titles of nobility. The name of the Gobelins as dyers cannot be found 
later than the end of the 17th century; in 1662 the entire works were 
purchased by Louis XV in behalf of the French government, by which 
it has been managed from that day to this. The government employed 
the best artists to make cartoons and paintings, and these pictures were 
reproduced almost exactly by the tapestry weavers at the Gobelin fac- 
tory. These were often of great size and elaboration including a large 



TAPESTRY 141 

series of sacred, mythological and historical subjects, landscapes, sea- 
pieces and even portraits. In this laborious and artistic work it is esti- 
mated that not less than 14,000 differently tinted silks and wools were 
in use. The production of the Gobelin governmental factories were 
chiefly for royal use and presentation, and even at this day few speci- 
mens are found outside the palaces of kings and princes. A single 
specimen owned by a New York house, measuring about 54x27 inches, is 
valued at $800. Real Gobelin tapestry is consequently hard to find in 
dry goods markets though much is sold as Gobelin which is not genuine. 
The name, Giles Gobelin, who was the original discoverer of the new 
process for dyeing a beautiful and peculiar scarlet, was the means of 
adding a new word to our vocabulary. Every bod}' at that time looked 
on him as a crank for spending so much mone} r on his factory and it 
was called "Gobelin's folly," but he made a go of it and his success was 
so great that those superstitious old folks supposed that he was aided 
by the devil. The devil was supposed to have taught him the art of 
dyeing the beautiful scarlet on condition that at a certain time the devil 
was to have him. 

When the time was up, the devil came after him and "caught him 
going through a yard at night with a little piece of lighted candle in his 
hand. Gobelin begged for time but the devil wouldn't let him have it. 
At last Gobelin requested his Satanic Majesty to wait until the bit of 
candle in his hand burned out, and the devil consented. The wilv old 
Gobelin, as soon as he got this concession, threw the candle into a well 
and pitched the devil in after it. The devil was very angry, but before 
he could get out, Gobelin gathered a guard of enthusiasts about him 
and secured himself from further attacks. 

Now for the word. From this story came the word "goblin," a ghost 
or specter, and it has become one of the words of the English language, 
but it had its origin in the silly story that was told about the man who 
first made these tapestries. 

TARLATAN is a thin, gauze-like fabric made of cotton, used for- 
merly for ball dresses, but at present for children's wear, fancy work, 
etc. It is of an open texture like plain-woven Swiss, but is more heav- 
ily "sized." Tarlatan is piece dyed in tints of blue, pink, green, etc, 
and is put up in 12 yard lengths. 

TARTANS.— [See Clan Tartans.] 

TEASLING or NAPPING.— The operation of raising a nap on the 
surface of woven cloth probably but few fully understand. This part of 
the process of finishing cloth is called Teasling. When woolen cloth is 
removed from the fulling machine wet and heavy the fabric is allowed 
to partly dn r , when it is in proper condition to produce a good nap. 
This nap-raising is effected b}' the use of the heads of a thistle-like 



142 TEASLING 

plant called the teasle. These oblong heads are about 3 inches long - by 
2 inches in diameter; clothed with strong-, sharp recurved hooks. They 
are an important article of commerce, being- grown principally in Hol- 
land and France. These heads are fixed in a round frame on the cir- 
cumference of a long cylinder, which is made to revolve against the 
surface of the cloth, just close enough so that the sharp hooked teasles 
may scratch the surface and become slightly entangled with the minute 
surface-fibres of the cloth, and so break or pull out their ends as to raise 
on the whole surface a tine, but unequal, nap. A self-acting arrange- 
ment within the cylinder regulates the lightness or closeness of contact 
of cloth and teasles. Much inventive talent has been expended to pro- 
vide metal substitues for the vegetable teasles, but all have been 
discarded; for the natural teasle. unlike any metal ' •teeth," while suffic- 
iently strong to scratch up the entire surface of the cloth, disengaging 
and opening up short fibres and thus covering the whole with a nap, 
will at the same time break in contact with a knot or other obstacle, 
without injuring the cloth, while the metal teeth are too liable to tear 
and break the threads. There are, however, several varieties of nap 
desired in finishing woolen cloths, and a nap may be raised in a certain 
class of fabrics for a purpose quite opposite of that for which other naps 
are formed. For instance, in finishing some goods, the object is to 
produce a smooth and thick nap which will quite conceal the underlying 
warp and filling; while other goods are but slightly teasled with a view 
of ultimately removing all nap from the surface, leaving the pattern of 
the cloth well defined and free from all hairiness. After the nap has 
been raised the cloth is next cropped or sheared, in order to produce a 
uniform, smooth and level nap, or a well cleaned surface. This opera- 
tion is now performed with great rapidity and certainty by a machine 
which in principle, is the same as a common lawn mower. It consists 
of a cylinder armed with a set of curved knives or cutters, revolving with 
great velocity against the stretched surface of the cloth, cutting- away 
and breaking off the projecting fibres which come within range of its 
blades. Cloths upon which a nap of sufficient thickness has been raised 
may be finished with any fancy ridged, tufted, or waved-line surface 
desired, as in case of heavy overcoating- and ladies' cloaking, by simply 
having the blades of the shearing machine so notched as to cut it out; 
or it may be pressed into various patterns by being "stamped" with hot 
iron rollers. 

TERRY CLOTH.— This is a cotton fabric with a looped pile surface 
used as a cloaking- for children and in the manufacture of Turkish 
towels. The first terrv cloth was made of silk in France some fifty years 
ago. In 1845 John Bright, the great statesman of England, began to 
make worsted terrv cloth at his mills at Rochdale. The fabric proved 



TERRY GOODS 143 

to be a great success, and many a manufacturer tried to solve the prob- 
lem of producing- the article in cotton. All of them failed, however, 
until Samuel Holt succeeded in making the first cotton terry cloth in 
1848. He patented the process both in England and the United States. 
In 1864 Holt left London and came to Patterson, New Jersey, where he 
formed a company and erected a plant for the manufacture of terry cloth. 
Two years afterward the company disposed of Holt's patents for $250.,- 
000, which caused a lawsuit, in which Holt lost a larg-e amount of money. 
Terry cloth is woven with two beams, one for the loop pile and the other 
for the foundation warp, which is always kept tight. After two wefts 
have been inserted and tightly beaten up, the reed is allowed to fly loose 
by a peculiar arrangement, and both warps being kept tight, two wefts 
are put in without being beaten up. Then the reed is fastened, and the 
loop warp made quite slack, and on the next weft being beaten up, the 
two previous are also driven home, and with them the loop warp which 
stood between the fell, q. v., and the two neglected wefts, thus forming 
loops on both sides of the cloth. This weave is not confined to the 
making of fabrics with an unbroken pile surface, but is adopted in stripes 
for bath towels and wraps, in checks and even figures for quilts, com- 
bined with color in other effects, and also woven alternately in some 
special cloths with entirely different patterns. Terry Velvet is made 
entirely of silk, having fine ribs or cords on the best side. Inferior 
kinds are made with a cotton back. It is chiefly used for trimmings, 
particularly for children's garments. Although called velvet, it has not 
nap or pile that is a distinguishing characteristic of such a textile. 

THIBET cloth kept by tailors occupies a place between a melton and 
a cheviot; it is more elastic and softer than melton and not so nappy as 
as cheviot; the nap is very slight and lays close to the surface of the 
the cloth, giving the goods a rough unfinished appearance. The name 
Thibet has also been applied to a kind of camelette, formerly made of 
goat's hair, but now wool, and is of shaggy aspect, used for ladies' dresses. 

THIMBLE b} T some persons is said to be a corruption of thumb-bell, 
so called from its shape. By others thimble is said to be derived from 
"thymel" a thumb stall which is used by sail m ikers to protect the thumb. 

THREAD. — The first sewing thread ever made of cotton in this country 
was produced at Pawtucket, R. I., in 1794. Prior to this time linen had 
been the material used for making thread, and a spinning wheel for 
its manufacture was as common in every household as a tea-kettle. Each 
family in the early days spun their own thread, of flax of their own 
raising. The idea of using cotton is said to have been suggested by 
Mrs. Slater, wife of Samuel Slater, the pioneer of the cotton industry in 
the United States. 



144 THREAD 

With the invention of the spinning- jenny and other improved machin- 
ery for the manufacture of thread, the development, of this industry has 
been very rapid; the busy distaff and spinning- wheel of our grand -mothers 
have been releg-ated to dustry g-arrets and forg-otten, or are exhibited in 
museums as objects of curiosity. 

Thread for sewing - is made of the best "Sea Island" cotton, on account 
of the leng-th of its fibre. The first thing- that is done with the raw 
cotton is to suject it to the "picker" processs, by which the cotton from 
several bales is mixed to secure uniformity. During- this operation much 
waste in the form of dust, dirt and short fibres is separated from the 
g-ood' cotton by the picker. Next the picked cotton is wound on a 
machine, in sheets or laps, into a roll. Now comes the carding-, by which 
these sheets are combed but into long- parallel fibres, and drawn throug-h 
a funnel shaped opening-, which condenses it into a sing-le thread or 
sliver. Then comes the fast "roving-" process which consists in wind- 
ing- and twisting- these threads into minute strands or cords, numbered 
from 1 to 300. Two of the cords thus produced are wound tog-ether on a 
spool and then twisted from that spool to another, and then three threads 
of two cords each are twisted tog-ether, forming- a six-cord thread. (Each 
number of thread has its own twist, that is the number of turns it g-ets 
to the inch.) One who has followed the process sees the cotton grad- 
ually transformed from a wide sheet of loose cotton to a thread that will 
pass. throug-h the e) r e of the smallest needle. The six-cord thread is at 
least taken from the bobbins and reeled into a skein, in which form it is 
bleached or dyed. A larg-e quantity of thread is now polished, and is 
known in trade as glace. Of late there has been an increased demand for 
crochet thread, the manufacture of which is similar to the process of 
ordinary sewing- cotton, described above. From the skein the thread is 
wound back on little white birch spools and is ready for the market. 
The machine that reg-ulates the last winding- measures the number oj 
yards wound on each spool, and the paper labels that decorate the ends 
are cut and pasted on by machinery with great rapidity. 

But few persons, even in the trade, understand why thread is numbered 
8, 10, 12, 20, etc., up to 200, althoug-h the reason is very simple. 
When 1 hank of cotton thread ( 840 yds) weigh 1 lb. it is sized No. 1 

2 " " " " ( 1680 " ) " 1 " " ' 2 

1(» " ' ( 8400 " ) " 1 10 

50 (.42000 " ) " 1 50 

" 100 " " " " (.84000 ".)•*' 1 100 

and so on. This is the whole of the thread measurement. The early 
manufactured thread was but three-cord, and took its number from the 
size of the yarn from which it was made; three strands of No. 60 yarn 
made No. 60 thread thoug-h in point of fact, the actual calibre of No. 60 



THREAD 145 

thread would equal No. 20 yarn, being- three 60 strands combined. When 
the sewing - machine came into market as the great consumer of thread, the 
six-cord, cotton had to be made a smoother product than formerly for 
mere hand needles' As thread numbers were alread} r established, they 
were not altered for the new article, and consequently No. 60 six-cord 
and No. 60 three-cord are identical in size as well as in number. To 
effect this of course the six-cord thread had to be made of strands just 
twice as fine as that demanded by three-cord. (For instance No. 60 six- 
cord is made of six strands of No. 120 yarn; No. 60 three-cord being 
made of three strands of No. 60 yarn. ) 

TICKING. — A strong cloth used chiefly for making beds, covering, 
matresses. paillasses etc. Formerly it was always made of linen, but 
cotton is now largely used for this purpose. A very general character- 
istic of ticking is that it is woven in stripes of two colors blue and white, 
used also in fane} 7 colors for ladies' skirts and petticoats. 

TOILINETTE.— [See Valentia.] 

TORCHON LACE.— Torchon lace was made in the 17th century, and 
from that time has been largely used on the Continent. It is simple 
thread lace that at one time was known as Beggars' lace. The cheap 
Torchon lace now largely sold is made by machinery. [See Lace.] 

TRICOT ( tre-co) is the French word for stocking-net; tricotage means 
knitting, and tricoteur, knitter; hence the particular weave known as 
tricot, often found in flannel and other woolen cloths, is so called on ac- 
count of its imitation of and intended resemblence to a knitted web. 
Tricot signifies a fine woolen material of the weave above referrred to, 
used for men's clothing; and a variety of ladies' dress flannel, usually 
double width. 

TROUSERS. — (From French trousses, corresponding with the English 
word breeches.) In United States the original word trousers is almost 
laid aside, the term being only applied to the loose garments of sailors 
or laborers, while pantaloons is used in all other cases. The English 
adhere to the old term in respect equally to the dress of gentlemen and 
all others, making much less use than we do of the word pantaloons. 

TULLE. — Properly Point de Tulle, a fine net, so called from the town 
of that name, capital of Correze, France. Machinery for the manufac- 
ture of tulle was invented about the year 1800 and was copied after the 
Bobbinet invention. [See Bobbinet.] At first it was termed Tulle sim- 
ple et double; in 1825, tulle bobine grenadine; next it was termed "zephyr," 
and finally "illusion." At present it is a plain fine silk net, made after 
the manner of Bobbinet and dyed in different colors; called either Tulle 
or Illusion. 



146 TURKEY RED 

TURKEY RED.— This celebrated color— the most durable and one of 
the most beuutiful which has yet been produced in cotton — is dyed by a 
process practiced in India from immemorial times as a well -guarded 
secret with dyers. It passed through Asia into Turkey, (whence. its 
name) and was introduced into France about the middle of the last cen- 
tury, where the process was made public in 1803. 

There is a mode of dyeing - cotton red with madder practiced by calico 
printers — the cloth being* previously bleached with chloride of lime — 
when the whole process occupies only a day or two. But in the case of 
turkey-red, which is also a madder dye, the operation is long and 
tedious. The following is an outline of the steps of the turkey-red 
process, as usualh- conducted: 1st. Unbleached calico cloth is thor- 
oughly washed and then boiled for some time in a solution of carbonate 
of soda. 2nd. The cloth is soaked in a bath containing a soapy emul- 
sion of olive oil, sheep's dung, carbonate of sodium and water and al- 
lowed to remain for a week or more soaking in the solution, after which 
it is aired in the fields and dried in stoves. This operation is repeated 
three times, and hence the cloth is sometimes called "•oil-red" calico. 3. 
The next operation consists in passing through an emulsion of olive oil 
and carbonate of sodium, but without sheep's dung, after which it is 
aired and dried as in the last operation. This is repeated at least four 
times. 4 The cloth now requires to be soaked in a weak alkaline lye of 
pearl ash and soda, in order to remove any excess of oil. 5. The cloth 
is warmed in a bath containing a mixture of powdered oak galls and 
sumach. 6. Next it is steeped in a solution of alum. Without this last 
treatment the dye would not be fixed upon the cotton. When thoroughly 
washed the cloth is ready to receive the red dye, which is produced by 
immersing it in a decoction of madder, to which is added chalk and bul- 
lock's blood. It is put into the dye vat cold and kept in it for two hours, 
after it has been raised to the boiling point. 8. Finally the cloth is 
cleared and brightened by boiling in a solution of chloride of lime. The 
exact reasons for so man}- operations requisite in turkey-red dyeing are 
not well understood, which accounts for the fact that so far it has been 
impossible to shorten the process. The two most essential points are 
the oiling and dyeing with madder, but if any of the numerous dippings, 
in the emulsions and solutions are left out, the color is duller and more 
inferior in proportion to the number of omissions. Besides being largely 
used in its plain red state, turkey-red calico is figured by ordinary calico 
printing machines, where, by proper arrangements the different colors 
of a pattern or figure are printed in the parts where the red color is dis- 
charged by chloride of lime. [See Bandana and Maddkr.] This color 
is used in dyeing linen and cotton table cloths, etc., but never used in 
d yeing wool. 



TURKISH TOWELS 147 

TURKISH TOWELS.— From the invention of terry cloth, q.v. to the 
manufacture of Turkish towels was but a single step, and when the first 
towel was presented to Queen Victoria, she was so much pleased with it 
that she awarded a medal to the inventor, Samuel Holt, and the favor 
thus shown by ro}^alty for the new product, was of course soon adopted 
by her loyal subjects. Whv we should call these towels "Turkish," is 
difficult to understand, considering - that the fabric was first made in 
England. The only explanation which may hold good is that soon 
after the invention was made, large quantities were shipped to Turkey, 
where they were, and are still, held in high estimation by the natives. 

TWEED. — A name given to a certain kind of woolen cloth, originally 
made in factories on the Tweed river, in Scotland — hence its name. It 
is prepared solely for men's clothing, and is of an open, soft, flexible 
nature, twill woven, which gives the structure a curious appearance of 
diagonal lines. Tweeds differ from worsteds and broad cloths in being- 
so finely spun or closely woven, but most of all in not being so thor- 
oughly felted q. v. Tweed yarns are dyed before being woven. Some- 
times three or four colors are spun or twisted into one thread. The chief 
difference between other fine cloths and tweeds, irrespective of pattern, 
arises from the fulling which in the case of tweeds only occupies a few 
hours, but with broad-cloths, cheviots etc., occupies several days. The 
result is that broad-cloths and cheviots are so completely felted that the 
surface betrays no appearance, but in Tweeds the pattern as well as the 
warp and woof can be distinctly seen. Tweeds were, when first began 
to be manufactured, all shepard checks, but are now made in all kinds of 
checks and stripes, as well as plain styles, besides an endless variety of 
mixtures under the generl name of "fancy" tweeds. 

TWILL — From German Twillen, (to separate into two parts.) An 
appearance of diagonal lines or ribs produced in textile fabrics by caus- 
ing the weft threads to pass over one and under two, or over one and un- 
der three or more warp threads, instead of over one and under the next 
in regular succession, as in plain weaving. The object in twill weaving 
is to increase the bulk. or bulkiness of a fabric and to ornament it. The 
order of working the threads in permits the introduction of more mater- 
ial into the fabric, and so make it more bulky and closer in construction 
than in plain weaving. Many different patterns or surfaces can be 
produeced by twilling; that is, by changing the order of passing the 
weft over the warp threads; as a satin twill, plain twill, 3-leaf or 
cashmere twill, Damask twill, q.v. The effect of each of these, how- 
ever, is a distinct pattern upon the fabric, a species of cord running in a 
diagonal direction across the web. 



148 TWINE 

TWINE. — Twine as is commonly known is a strong- thread, cord, or 
string- of two or three smaller threads or strands twisted together. It is 
usually numbered as follows: Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, flax ball twines, suitable 
for hardware manufactures, etc. ; Nos 5, 6, 7, 8, fine flax, grey and col- 
ored twine for stationers, etc.; Nos. 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, red, blue and other 
colors, for druggists, etc.; Nos. 14, 16, 17, bleached flax twine for fancy 
goods, cutlery, etc.; Nos. 15, and 18, jute and cotton twine for grocers, 
tea dealers, etc. There are also seine twine, patent twine, gill twine, 
four-ply twine, etc. Sewing twine for sails weighs at the rate of 360 to 
430 fathoms to the pound. One pound of this twine will sew 160 yards 
of seam, on an average. 



U 



UMBRELLA originates from the Italian word ombrello — "a little 
shade." The umbrella lays claims to a pedigree of the highest an- 
tiquity, having been put to different uses amongst the nations of the 
East from time immemorial. In China it was in constant use two cen- 
turies prior to the Christian Era; and anterior to this, representations of 
it may be found upon the ancient slabs of Nineveh, and the frescos of 
Thebes and Memphis, also upon Etruscan vases. Preceeding by mnay 
centuries the Roman period, umbrellas distinctly figured are to be met 
with. At present the gradations are infinite, ranging from the elabor- 
ate excellence of the parachute to the hermaphrodite object which serves 
by turns as shelter and support, which, though unable to claim a place 
in the aristocracy of its race, is yet eminently respectable. 

UNDERLINEN, or UNDERWEAR, is a general terra which includes 
every article worn beneath the external or outer garments, by da}' or 
night, both of men and women. It is made of a variety of materials, 
silk, cotton, wool, linen, stockinette, spun silk, lace, cambric, merino, 
flannel, nainsook, elastic, jean, etc. Union Underwear is a particular 
style in which the drawers and vest are combined together as one 
garment. 

UNION CASSIMERE indicates a mixed material found exclusively 
in ready made clothing. It is made with cotton warp and wool filling, 
the pattern of the cloth being woven in in the loom. The main differ- 
ence between Satinet and Union Cassimere is the method of producing 
the pattern — in the former it being printed on, and in the latter woven 
in, plain and distinct. 



UPHOLSTERY 149 

UPHOLSTERY is a term by which every description of textile em- 
ployed in the making- and covering' of furniture is designated. Varieties 
of silk, velvet, horse-hair, reps, chintz, leather, cloth, moreen, Utrecht 
velvet, cretonnes, muslin, linen, dimity, etc.. are all included under the 
name of " upholstery cloths or stuffs. " 

UTRECHT VELVET, or Furniture Plush, was formerly extensively 
manufactured in the city of Utrecht, Holland, hence the name; but more 
recently the trade has centered at Amiens, France, and in Connecticut. 
It is used for upholstering railway cars and office furniture. It has a 
Mohair pile woven into a linen foundation, and is an exceedingly dura- 
ble material. [See Velvet, Plush, Weaving.] 



V 



VALENTIA is a mixed material, having a cotton warp, or a cotton 
and silk warp for the silk portion, and a worsted weft of fine British 
wool. Valentias are produced in large quantities at Spitalfields, and 
the patterns are variegated and showy in appearance. They are manu- 
factured exclusively for men's fancy vests, and are very similar to the 
cloth termed Toilinette, which is composed of silk and cotton and 
"woolen" yarn, hence is a somewhat softer fabric than Valentia. 

VELOURS is a French term signifying velvet, and is derived from 
the Latin villosus, "shaggy." Among old English writers, and in the 
entries made in the lists of the royal wardrobes of England, the terms 
velure and velures are found, as well as vallonettes mentioned by Chaucer. 
Velours is a special description of furniture, carpet, velvet or plush, 
partly of linen and partly of double cotton warps and mohair yarn weft, 
first manufactured in Prussia. At present Velours also denotes a par- 
ticular kind of cotton curtain fabric, exactly alike on both sides, woven 
with a coarse stiff pile on the Terry cloth q. v. principle, and dyed in solid 
colors. It has somewhat the appearance of plush or Terry cloaking 
with a pile on either side. 

VELVET.— (From It. Vclluto, "shaggy.")— In all probability the art 
of velvet weaving originated in China. About the beginning of the 
14th century it is first mentioned in English inventories, though fustian 
which differs from velvet only in material, is spoken of as early as 1321. 
The processes employed in the manufacture of velvet are the same as in 
making corduroy, plush, fustian, beaverteen, Brussels and Wilton car- 
pets. Its peculiar character is produced by the insertion of what seems 
to be short pieces of silk thread secured under the weft thread, their 



150 VELVET 

ends standing- upright and so close tog-ether as to completely conceal the 
foundation beneath. In weaving velvet, besides the ordinary warp and 
weft which are usually arranged as in twill weaving, there is also an 
extra warp thread, called pile threads, arranged in the loom parallel to the 
regular warp, and much long-er, which in the progress of weaving are 
passed over a line brass wire, which is laid across the whole fabric, over 
the warp threads. The working of a treadle carries the "pile threads 
threads down over the wire, forming a loop, when the}- are fastened by 
the next throw of the shuttle. Another wire is placed in the same po- 
sition for the next row of loops across the fabric, and these are produced 
the same as above. Two wires only are used and these are freed in 
turns b}- the same process which converts the loops into a pile. Each of 
them has a groove along its top surface, and on this is run a sharp edged 
knife, thus cutting the loop*, and leaving two ends of each one projecting 
above the fabric. The velvet is now trimmed evenly, brushed up and 
dressed to produce the velvety pile. Fine velvets contain 40 to 50 loops 
to an inch leng'th of fabric, and their production is therefore exceedingly 
slow and laborious. In silk velvets the warp and pile threads are both 
organzine silk, which is the strongest used in weaving. Lyons, France, 
is the principal seat of manufacture of broad velvets, and such as those 
for cloak making-, called Ponson Velvets, and St. Etiene is the princi- 
pal seat of velvet ribbon manufacture. 

There are two kinds of velvet which have the effect of being stamped 
or embossed, although onl}- one of them has a pattern produced by 
stamping. This latter or "real stamped velvet," which is of compara- 
tively inferior quality, has a silk face and cotton back. It is woven 
with a silk pile and by means of heated stamping irons formed into va- 
rious patterns. It is so pressed as to make the portions between those thai 
ore raised appear as if of satin make. Stamped velvet is employed for the 
making- of dress bodices and trimming-s. 

The superior velvet known as Velvet Broche, has a design in the silk 
pile; woven into the web and not stamped. 

Terry Velvet is made entirely of silk, having fine ribs or cords on 
the best side. Inferior kinds are also made with a cotton back. It is 
chiefly used for trimmings, particularly for children's garments. Al- 
though called velvet, it has not the nap or pile that is a distinguishing 
characteristic of such a textile. 

VELVETEENS are cotton velvets, and are always wider than their 
silk sisters, although woven in exactly the same manner. The making 
of these goods is mostly, if not wholly, in the hands of British manu- 
facturers. All efforts to make the goods in the United States 
have been unsuccessful. A limited amount -if the cheaper grades 
of the raw grey cloth is imported and dyed here, such as "Vulcan," 



VELVETEEN 151 

•'Elberon" and "H") but there are no velvet mills in operation making 
the cloth. Dyers claim that the most important branch of black-dyeing 
upon cotton goods, is that employed for cotton velvets or velveteens, in 
which it is desired to produce a rich lustrous effect; the process is long, 
tedious and uncertain, consisting of successive applications of sumach, 
acetate of iron, logwood and fustic — the end chiefly aimed at being the 
production of a black with a blush or violet bloom. The English dyers 
formerly held a monopoly of this blue-black upon velvet, as it is called, 
but of late years our home d3 r ers have shown themselves very formidable 
competitors. English Fast Pile Velveteen is a velveteen made in En- 
gland after a new and superior method, insuring the fixity and firm 
adhesion of the pile, which sometimes wears out of the web when man- 
ufactured according to the original plan. The names given to it vary 
according to the fancy of the several manufacturers who produce it. 
Among them it is known as "Imperial,'" "Louis,'' 1 "Brunswick Finish," 
"Mancunium," and "Peacock." 

VENETIAN carpets usually have a warp of hard twisted worsted or 
cotton. These are so woven that the warp gives the pattern, the weft 
being wholly concealed. This is the cause of the stripes which these 
carpets usually exhibit. Sometimes by a suitable selection of the weft 
colors the stripes may be converted into checks, twilled patterns, etc. 
For this carpet, cotton makes a better warp than hemp. However, the 
best Venetians are all of wool. The tariff on woolen warp carpets is 19 
cents per square yard and 40 per cent, ad valorem. 

VIGOGNE CLOTH (vi-gone) is a delicate all wool textile, and is 
produced in neutral colors — greys, lavenders and steel, as well as black. 
The commoner kinds have a small armvre woven in them. Vigogne is 
the French name for the wool of the Peruvian sheep, or for a woolen 
stuff of the finest Spanish wool. It is very suitable as a summer dress 
material, for which it was designed. 



W 



WALE. — A ridge or streak rising above the surface of the cloth, run- 
ning the entire width or length of the piece. 

WARP. — The threads which are extended lengthwise in the loom and 
crossed by the woof or filling. Warp is sometimes called the chain. 



152 WASH BLOND 

WASH BLONDE is the name ifiven to a species of narrow bobbinet, 
or Brussels net, suitable for quilling's. It was formerly produced from 
unbleached cotton and was termed "Nankin" and Blonde Net, from its 
yellow or blonde color. At present dyed in all colors, and distinguished 
by its narrow width. The quality of both Wash Blonde and Brussels Net 
depends upon the smallness of the meshes, their equality in size and the 
regularity of the hexagons. 

WATERED silks, watered ribbons, watered moreens, are those which 
have been subjected to a process by which the surface assumes a variety 
of shades, as if the cloth were covered with a multitude of waving and 
intersecting linens. [See Moire.] The French speak of this class of 
goods as la Moire, while the English term them watered moreen. Tabby is 
a silk fabric woved in a similar manner. To "tabby" is but another 
expression for "to water," and the adjective tabby, usually referring to a 
brindled cat, signifies streaked with waving lines. 

WEAVING is the art of .forming cloth by the interlacing of yarn in a 
loom. In weaving two sets of yarn is used — the warp and the weft. 
The warp consists of the threads of yarn which extend in parallel lines 
from end to end, the whole length of the web. The weft yarn crosses 
and intersects the warp at right angles and fills up the breadth of the 
web. Weaving is thus distinct from knitting, netting, plaiting or felt- 
ing. According to Pliny, Semiramis, the Assyrian Queen, was believed 
to have been the inventress of the art of weaving. "Minerva is, in some 
of the ancient statues, represented with a distaff to intimate that she 
taught men the art of spinning; and this honoris given by the Egyptians 
to Isis; by the Mohammedans to a son of Japeth; by the Chinese to the 
consort of their Emperor Yas; and by the Peruvians to Mamacella, wife 
to Manco-Capac, their first sovereign." These traditions serve only to 
carry the invaluable art of spinning and weaving up to an extremely re- 
mote period, long prior to that of authentic history. 

Apparently the varieties of woven cloth are endless; but these differ- 
ences are only in part due to the method of weaving. The textile ma- 
terials employed, the methods of spinning and preparing the yarns, the 
dye colors resorted to and the finishing processes may vary indefinitely, 
and so contribute to give variety of character to the resultant product. 
The particular factory brands of a given material are often innumerable, 
for these depend upon the fertile fancy of the manufacturer, and are 
often so near alike that the name is the only difference. The complex- 
ities of the art of weaving, in itself, are reducible to a few fundamental 
operations, which do not of necessity demand intricate machinery. For 
producing the India muslins of the present day with their marvelous 
delicacy of texture, and also for the elaborate and sumptous shawls of 
Cashmere, the native weavers have only rude and simple looms. But 



WEAVING 153 

patient and tedious handwork, in these instances, is devoted to produce 
effects which modern machinery can secure with as great rapidity, as m 
the case of the plainest fabric. 

The series of inventions which have led up to the ingenious looms of 
the present day, began with the inyention of the fly shuttle in 1733, and 
culminated with the Jacquard appliance in 1802, the principle of which 
has never since been improved upon. The fundamental principles of 
all weaving may be classed under the heads of Plain Weaving, Twill 
Weaving, Figure Weaving, Gauze Weaving, Double Weaving and Pile 
Weaving: 

Plain Weaving, such as is found in ordinary calico, muslin or linen, 
will on examination, be found to consist of two sets of threads, the one 
intersecting the other at right angles, with each single thread passing 
alternately over one and under one in regular order. 

Twill Weaving (from German twillen, to separate in two parts) pro- 
duces an appearance of diagonal lines or ribs, caused by the weft threads 
passing over one and under two, or over one and under three, ( or more ) 
warp threads, instead of over one and under the next in regular succes- 
sion, as in plain weaving. Many varieties and combinations are possible 
with this class of weaving: a Cashmere twill may be made, that is, a 
4-leaf combination, in which the weft passes alternately over and under 
two warp ends, and two picks are shot for each shed. Further, zigzags, 
squares, and other angled designs can be produced by reversing the or- 
der of treading, and thereby causing the twill to run in different direc- 
tions. [See Herringbone;.] 

Figure Weaving.— To produce a complicated and irregular pattern, 
a large number of different sheds of warps must be provided, and to se- 
cure with promptitude and certainty such manifold .and complicated 
sheddings, many of the most elegant and ingenious devices ever applied 
to mechanism have been invented; but those who wish to pursue the 
subject in detail and obtain a more complete understanding of figured 
weaving should witness the modern Jacquard loom in actual operation. 

Double Weaving.— For many purposes the weaving of double cloth 
is important. It permits the formation of a background of cotton or 
other inferior material, with a surface of finest texture; and it affords 
great scope for the formation of colored patterns, allowing also the 
production of double-faced textures, which may, or may not correspond 
in pattern on both sides, according to pleasure. It, moreover, increases 
the weight of woven fabrics, and is the basis of tubular weaving, such 
as practiced in making hose, tubes, seamless bags, etc. There are three 
classes of double textures: The first consists of double warp surfaces, 
with the filling in the center; in the second it is the reverse, a warp 
center and two weft surfaces. In the third case the cloth may consist 



154 WEAVING 

of two distinct warps and wefts throughout, and practically be two sep- 
arate cloths. These, if bound at the selvages, would become woven 
tubes, and if at regular intervals over the surface, a warp thread or fill- 
ing- thread passes from one side into the other, they are united as one 
texture. 

Gauze Weaving. — Hitherto we have dealt only with methods of 
weaving in which the warp threads run parallel with each other, and 
are intersected at right angles by the weft. In gauze weaving effects 
midway between lace and plain cloth are produced, the warp threads 
being made to intertwist more or less among themselves, producing a 
light open texture, such as Lisle thread and Balbriggan goods. Plain 
gauze is simply a plain open weave, in which two contiguous threads of 
warp make a half twist around each other at every pick, the cloth being 
in appearance similar to a knitted fabric. 

Pile "Weaving. — A pile fabric is woven with a looped or otherwise 
raised surface. "Looped" pile is descriptive of any fabric in which the 
woven loops remain uncut, as in Brussels and Tapestry carpets, and in 
Terr}* velvets and cloaking. When these loops are cut in the finished 
texture, then the material is a "cut" pile, such as ordinary velvet, plush, 
fustian, imitation sealskin, Wilton carpets, etc. For the weaving of 
ordinary pile fabrics two sets of warp threads are required, the regular 
beam warp and the "pile" warp. The foundation, or back, ma}* be wo- 
ven plain or twilled. In weaving the foundation, at every third pick a 
small round wire is partially woven into the cloth, and the "pile" warp 
is brought up over and around this wire, and thus a row of loops is formed 
across the web. If a "looped" pile is desired it only remains to pull the 
wires out from behind and weave them in again in front, as the work 
proceeds. But if a cut pile is being made, then the loops must be cut 
along the top of the wires before slipping them out of the cloth. In 
some cases the wires are furnished with a knife edge on one side, and 
the loops are thus cut as the wires are withdrawn. The pile thus pro- 
duced, is afterwards made uniform and level by shearing with a machine 
whicn in principle is very similar to a common lawn mower. This 
shearing operation w*as formerly accomplished by hand, with the use of 
narrow, pointed scissors, usually about two feet in length. The work- 
men by practice became so skillful in wielding* these that there is no 
perceptible difference in the appearance of the old hand work and the 
present machine-sheared product. 

Cloth does not come from the loom in a finished state, as many imagine. 
If it is woolen cloth it has a bare, rough and fuzzy look, and is at this 
stage called the raw thread. After leaving the loom it requires to be 
scoured and washed; burled — to remove any knots, burrs or imperfections; 
fulled, q. v. teaslcd, q. v. sheared, boiled and scalded to impart a lustre 



WEAVING 155 

to it, and prevent spotting- with rain. After this it is dyed ( if not pre- 
vious^* done in the yarn ), and finally pressed between polished iron 
plates in a powerful hydraulic press; after which it is folded or rolled, 
and is ready for shipment. 

When cotton cloth is taken from the loom, it has a covering - of surface 
hairs or minute threads, which communicate a fibrous down or nap to 
the cloth, and if allowed to remain would interfere with the uniform 
application of the printed colors, or dull the distinct appearance of the 
woven pattern. This surface down has to be g-ot rid of by the process 
of singeing, q. v. during - which the cloth is drawti over a red hot iron 
or copper bar, or through a series of gas jets. To accomplish this, the 
cloth is first brought into contact with roller brushes, which raise the 
fuzz on the surfaces, then passes lightly over the white hot metal bar, 
or through the gas jets, and is wound on to a roller. This process is 
repeated twice on the face of the cloth to be printed, and once on the 
back. When well singed, cotton cloth undergoes the operation of 
bleaching, q. v. and is thereafter calendered q. v. 

On being removed from the loom certain cotton cloths are also teasled 
for the purpose of raising on one or both surfaces a nap, for the procure- 
ment of warmth or softness, as seen in canton flannels, cotton plush, 
furniture drapery and sometimes in flannelettes. 

It will doubtless interest a portion of the trade to learn that the do- 
mestic title "wife" is derived from -'to weave," as she was distinguished 
so much from the balance of her family in the olden time by her labors 
at the loom. The Saxon word for weave was wefan, and was also applied 
to a woman who worked at the loom and made a web. The adoption of 
the name "wife" from the art of weaving is a natural sequence to that 
of giving the name "spinster" to an unmarried woman, — for the girl 
was supposed to spin the yarn, which when woven into clothing, she 
was to wear as the garments of a wife. For a thousand years, or for 
aught we know, ten thousand, prior to the invention of the power loom, 
each household- was necessarily the manufacturers of their own cloth 
and the makers of their own clothing - . It was the practice of the hus- 
band and sons to tend the sheep and cultivate the flax; of the "spinster" 
to prepare the 3-arns, by the aid of distaff and spinning wheel; and of 
the wife, on account of her greater experience, to weave the web. In 
India at the present day the yarns for the lightest and airiest fabrics 
known in the world are spun by the hands of young women, by reason 
of their nimbler fingers and more sensitive touch. 



WEFT.— The woof or filling of cloth. The threads that cross the 
warp from selvage to selvag'e. 



156 WHALEBONE 

WHALEBONE is the inaccurate terra applied to the horny blades 
which take the place of teeth in the mouths of large whales. They 
number about 300 in the case of full grown whales, are from 10 to 15 
feet long-, and serve the purpose of retaining 1 the small fishes which 
compose its food. The "whalebone" is not bone, but bears a strong - re- 
semblance to the horns of cattle and the nails and hair of other animals. 
In preparing- the raw blades for commercial purposes, they are first 
boiled in water for several hours, until soft enough to cut easily with a 
common knife. The workman then cuts them into the different lengths 
and thicknesses, after which they are dyed black. Whales furnishing 
the right quality of whalebone are now very scarce, and $7290 per ton 
is the average price paid for the best Greenland blades; the high price 
has led to the substitution for it of steel, vulcanite, rattan, featherbone 
and wood. 

WIGAN. — A very coarse and heavily sized cotton cloth, used for lin- 
ing the bottom of ladies' dresses, in order to make them keep the shape 
desired. Wigan was the cloth upon which was formerly fixed tne hair 
of a wig, or periwig, being stiff ered so that it would fit the head in a 
comfortable and proper manner. 

WOOF. — The threads which cross the warp in weaving. The weft 
or filling. 

WOOL is a form of hair, distinguished by its soft and wavy or curly 
structure, and by its highly serrated or scaly surface. Sheep are by far 
the most important producers of wool, but by no means the only animal 
which yields wool employed for industrial purposes. The alpaca, the 
llama, the Angora goat and the camel are all wool producers; while the 
Cashemere goat of the Himalayan mountains yield the most costly wool 
in the world. At what point it can be said that an animal fibre ceases 
to be hair and becomes wool it is impossible to determine, because in 
even- characteristic the one class bv imperceptible gradations merges 
into the other, so that a continuous chain can be formed from the finest 
and softest Merino to the rigid bristles of the wild boar. 

Next to cotton, wool is the most important of all textile fibres, and 
from the earliest dawn of human history has formed a striking feature 
in the condition of mankind. The ease with which it may be made 
into thread, and owing to the comfort derived from clothing of woolen 
texture, it naturally would be the textile first used bv mankind as a 
covering to shield him from the elements. The testimony of all ancient 
records goes to prove the high antiquity of woolen textures and the 
early importance of sheep. 

Sheep were first introduced into this country at Jamestown, Virginia, 
in 1609, and in 1633 the animals were first brought to Boston. Ten 



WOOL 157 

years later a fulling- mill was erected at Rowler, close by Boston, where 
first was began cloth making- in the Western world. The "factory" 
woolen industry, however, was not established till the close of the 18th 
century, and it is recorded that the first carding machine put in opera- 
tion was constructed in 1794. [ See Home Weaving.] 

As has already been indicated, the distinction between wool and hair 
lies chiefly in the great fineness, softness and waved delicacy of woolen 
fibre, combined with a highly serrated surface. Upon these minute 
points of difference, the value of wool chiefly depends, especially with 
regard to the great variety of its applications. If each fibre were 
straight and smooth, as in the case of hair, it would not retain the 
twisted state given to it by spinning, but woUld rapidly untwist when 
relieved from the foree of the spinning wheel; but the wavy condition 
causes the fibres to become entangled with each other, and the little 
projecting points of the scales hook into each other and hold the fibres 
in close contact. Moreover, the deeper those scales fit into one another 
the closer becomes the structure of the thread, and consequently the 
cloth made of it. This peculiarity also gives to wool the quality of 
Felting q. v. These scales or serrations are most numerous, acute and 
pointed in fine wools; as many as 2800 per inch having been counted in 
specimens of the finest Saxony wool. In Leicester wool, which is long 
and bright, the serrations are fewer in number, counting about 1800, 
and also less pronounced in character, the fibre presenting a smoother 
and less waved appearance. In some inferior wools the serrations are 
not as inany as 500 per inch. A similar difference may be noted in the 
fineness of the fibres. Saxony lamb's wool has a diameter of from one- 
fifteen hundredth to one-eighteen hundredth of an inch, while Texas 
" coarse" may rise to a diameter of one- two hundred and seventy-fifth 
of an inch. In length of staple, wool also varies greatly, attaining in 
"combing" wools a length of 15 to 20 inches. As a rule the fine felting 
wools are short in staple, these constituting "carding" or "woolen" yarn 
wools; and the longer are lustrous and comparatively straight, thus be- 
ing more suitable for "combing" or "worsted" wools. The latter wools 
approach Mohair and Alpaca in their characters, and are prepared and 
spun by the same machinery. 

The wool market is supplied from almost every quarter of the globe, 
the qualities and varieties being numerous. The range of "woolen" 
and "worsted" manufacture is also very wide, the raw material for one 
class not being at all suitable or fitted for the other. Much more than 
is the case in any other textile industry, we have in the woolen trades 
practically a series of separate and distinct industries, each with a dif- 
ferent class of raw wool. The main distinctions are (1) carding wools, 
in which felting qualities are desirable; (2) combing wools, requiring 



158 WOOL 

length of staple and brightness of fibre, for making hard-spun, non- 
felting worsteds; and (3) carpet and knitting wools, in which a long 
and strong and somewhat coarse staple is the essential quality. Breed- 
ing, climate and different kinds of food are the factors in securing the 
different qualities, 

An eminent authority on wool directs particular attention to the in- 
fluence on the quality of the fleece, <>f the food which the sheep eats, 
and dwells on the following four points: (1 ) To obtain the right quality 
of good wool the sheep must be well fed; (2) if the sheep receives too 
much food, or food which is not sufficiently nutritive, the wool lacks 
strengh, is destitute of grease, and becomes in consequence flabby, 
rough to the touch, dry and harsh; (3) regularity in the distribution of 
the food is very important; faults in this matter affect the quality of the 
wool; (4) there is a difference of opinion about the action of certain foods 
on wool. All, however, agree in ascribing a marked influence to fertile 
pastures. The wool of sheep that enjoy such pasturage is abundant; 
the fibre is long and is characterized by its softness, whiteness, lustre 
and strength. It has been proven conclusively that all foods which 
promote perspiration produce fine wool. 

It becomes necessary here to indicate the specific distinction between 
''worsted" and "woolen" yarns and cloths. In a general way it may be 
said that "woolen" yarns are those made from short wools possessed of 
high felting qualities, which are prepared b\ a process of carding, in 
which the fibres are as far as possible crossed and interlaced with each 
other, forming a sort of light, fluffy yarn, which suits the material 
when woven into cloth for being brought into the semi-felted condition 
by fulling, which is the distinguishing characteristic of "woolen" cloth. 
On the other hand, "worsted" yarns are generally made from the long 
aud lustrous varieties of wool, the fibres instead of being "carded," are 
so "combed" as to bring them as far as possible to lie parallel to each 
other, and the yarn is spun into a compact, smooth and level thread, 
which when woven into cloth, is not fulled or felted. "Worsted" yarn 
requires to be harder twisted, because the fibres have not the felting 
qualities of "woolen," and hence will not wear unless the yarn is hard 
twisted. The surface of a "woolen" fabric is soft, oily, and pleasant to 
the touch, but a "worsted surface" is hard and slippery, and is therefore 
unpleasant in feeling. Each has its merits and defects. The felting 
quality of "woolens" causes the fabric to draw together or shrink, when 
wet, a defect that can only be overcome by special care in washing, 
which is seldom possible to command. A "worsted" fabric is much less 
affected, because the structure of its fibres precludes much drawing to- 
gether. At all points, however, "woolen" and "worsted" yarns as thus 
defined cut into each other to some extent; some •"woolens" being made 



WOOL 159 

from longer wool than some "worsteds," and vice versa; while fulling 
or felting - is a process done in all degrees — from a very little to a great 
deal — "woolens" sometimes not being- at all fulled, while to certain 
"worsteds" a felted finish is given. The fundamental distinction be- 
tween the two rests in the crossing- and interlacing of the fibres in pre- 
paring "woolen" 3'arn, while for "worsted" yarn the fibres are treated 
by processes desig-ned to bring- them into a smooth, parallel relationship 
to each other. Broadcloth, doeskin, cassimere, melton, cheviot, frieze, 
beavers, etc. are representatives of the "woolen" class; while corkscrew, 
diag-onal, say, serge, repp, etc. represent a few of the "worsted" class. 
Hosiery forms a class apart, as do also the wools used in the manufacture 
of carpets, shawls, alpaca and mohair' textures. [See Bleaching and 
Weaving, Merino, Woolen, Worsted, and Appendix for Tariff on 
wool and manufactures of wool.] 

WOOLENS. — There are two great classes of manufactures using wool 
as a raw material: The one in which carded wool is employed, termed 
"woolen" fabrics; and the other, in which combed wool is used, termed 
"worsted" fabrics. [See Wool.] One distinction between the two 
classes of fabrics is owing- to the way the yarn for each is spun. Yarn 
for "woolen" cloth is very slig-htly twisted, so as to leave the fibres as 
free as possible for the felting- process; "worsted" yarn, on the contrary, 
is hard spun, and made into a much strong-er thread. Names are given 
to various kinds of "woolen" cloths according to the way they are fin- 
ished, the special material of which they are made, and the purpose for 
which they are intended. The following- are representative "woolens:" 
Broadcloth, meltons, beavers, pilot cloth, police cloth, cloakings, cassi- 
meres, tweeds, ladies' cloth, flannels, blankets, cheviots, doeskins, etc. 
In order to illustrate the differences between a "worsted" and a "wool- 
en" fabric of exactly the same weave, compare the character and proper- 
ties of a fine doeskin with those of a fine worsted of the corkscrew weave: 
The qualities of lustre, softness of handle, and fineness of texture are 
common to both these fabrics; but, however carefully the doeskin may 
be examined, if the pile or nap raised on the surface is not removed by 
cither friction or singeing, the crossing- of the threads will be found t-o 
be completely hid from view, causing- the cloth to appear mure like the 
result of felting wool than of interlacing individual threads of warp and 
with each other. On taking up the corkscrew worsted, although the 
crossing of the threads may not be followed without the aid of a mag- 
nifying- glass, yet it is clear to the casual examiner of cloth that its 
leading feature (the "corkscrew") is obtained by the mode of interlacing 
the threads. This leads to an important conclusion, namelv, that the 
soft, pliable and mellow condition, or rather structure, of a "woolen" 
thread make it capable of taking a different finish to that of "worsted," 



160 WOOLENS 

while the latter is most suitable to fabrics where the weave is intended 
to be a prominent feature of the pattern. The well-defined surface of 
the worsted thread fully develops the effect of the make or design in 
woven goods, and hence the large variety of weave effects seen in worsted 
fabrics for both ladies' and gentlemen's wear. The soft and pliable 
nature of "woolen" yarns fits thorn especially for napping, or in which 
the finish is to be the main feature. [See Wool and Worsted.] 

WORSTED. — In the 15th century the production of woolen fabrics 
was a source of great wealth to many towns in eastern England, each 
town usually striving to excel in some special line or grade of woolen 
material. A sort of woolen yarn took its name from Worstead, in Nor- 
folk county, where it was first made. This yarn had a closer and harder 
twist than any woolen thread then made, and could be woven up into 
cloth of special fineness. For four hundred years this yarn has retained 
its identity, possessing the same distinctive features now as then. 

"Worsted" yarn, as explained under the head of Wool, is spun in a 
different way from woolen yarn. In the former, the fibres of wool are 
combed out as near parallel with each other as possible; in the latter the 
wool is carded, and the fibres are crossed in every direction, so as to as- 
sist in the felting or fulling of the cloth after it is woven. Worsted 
yarn No 24, for the making of fine cloths, weighs 10 7-10 drachms per 
560 yards. Yarn No 36, for delaines etc., weighs 7 1-10 drachms per 
560 yards. Yarn for Henrietta and other fine dress goods weighs 6 4-10 
drachms per 560 yards. Of this latter quality, in a pound of scoured 
wool costing say 40 cents, there would be 8400 yards of fine worsted 
yarn, a quantity sufficient to weave 5 yards of average width dress fabric. 
The added weight of dye matter, and the possible introduction of cotton, 
proportionately increase the profit of the manufacturer. 

Those cloths manufactured from "worsted" yarns which are figured, 
are woven in various kinds of looms, but in the main by the Jacquard; 
plain kinds are woven in looms similar to those used for "woolens." 
When worsted goods leave the loom they require only a slight dressing, 
and in this respect differ much from "woolen" cloths, which we have 
seen require elaborate finishing processes. "Worsted" goods are usually 
classified according to the materials of which they are composed, viz: 
1. Fabrics composed entirely of wool. 2. Fabrics composed of wool 
and cotton. 3. Fabrics composed of wool and silk. 4. Fabrics com- 
posed of alpaca and mohair, and the same mixed with cotton or silk. 

The first of these classes includes the fabrics so well known under the 
head of "Merinos," also shalloons, serges, bunting, reps and a large 
proportion of the heavier fabrics used for men's clothing — notably all 
those in which the weave effect forms the pattern. 



WOOLENS 161 

The second class includes Coburgs and Orleans cloths. Many of the 
names used in the all wool class are retained in this, with the prefix of 
the word "union;" also vestings, linings, shawls, quiltings, boot and 
shoe cloths, Toilinette, Valentia, etc. 

The third class includes the rich poplins made chiefly in Dublin, Par- 
matta or Henrietta cloth, Cantons and Pongee cloths, Bombazine, Tab- 
inets and Tammis. 

The fourth class includes Alpaca and Mohair mixtures, plain, twilled 
and figured; lustres, Alpaca poplins, braids and glaces. 

The unique structure of "worsted" yarn makes it invaluable h the 
production of textile fabrics. Lustre and uniformity of surface are its 
distinguishing characteristics. The method on which it is formed 
causes it to be capable of sustaining more tension, in proportion to size 
and thickness, than the pure "woolen" yarn. This characteristic, com- 
bined with its lustrous quality, gives it a pre-eminent position in the 
manufacture of fine coating. There is no other textile thread so highly 
adapted as the "worsted" to this important branch of the weaving in- 
dustry. A finer cloth, possessing a brighter and clearer surface, is cer- 
tainly producible with "worsted" than with "woolen" yarns. 

The method of adjusting the fibres in the formation of "woolen" yarn 
is such as to produce a thread with a somewhat indefinite and fibrous 
surface, which neutralize the character of the weave, or destroys, in 
some degree, the effect in woven goods, due to crossing warp and weft 
threads at right angles with each other. As the fibres are prepared on 
a different system in "worsted" yarn construction, a class of weave or- 
namentation of a decided or marked type may be obtained by employing 
this kind of thread. 

There is, in a word, more scope for pattern production of a weave de- 
scription in the use of "worsted" than carded (or "woolen") yarns, for 
the level and regular structure of the former imparts a distinctness to 
every section of a pattern resulting from a combination of different 
weaves, and hence the variety of effects which obtain in "worsted" 
trouserings, coatings and dress goods, both in highly-colored patterns 
and in piece-dyed fabrics of one shade throughout. The advantage 
which the "worsted" possesses over the "woolen" thread for some classes 
are two-fold; (1) a smarter texture, that is, a clearer surface, and (2) 
a more definitely-pronounced weave effect. 

As to the carded thread, ("woolen") it is more suitable than "wor- 
sted" for the cloths in which the colorings of the pattern require to be 
well blended together, the texture fibrous, or the fabric well fulled, as 
for example, fancy tweeds, cheviots, and thick, heavy cloths, comprising 
doeskins, meltons, pilots, beavers and naps. 



162 WOVEN LABELS 

WOVEN LABELS are small strips of silk with a merchant's name 
and address woven into it, used to advertise the merchant selling- the, 
clothing, cloaks or jerseys upon which the label is sewed. Any mer- 
chant can order these labels with his own name and address in different 
colors woven into them, and these he can turn over to his clothing- or 
cloak house to have sewed on every garment he mav buy. 



Y 



YACHT CLOTH (yot) is a woolen fabric carried by tailors, for the 
manufacture of men's summer suits. It is a flannel, heavier than either 
ordinary flannel or serg-e, finished with a roug-h surface and piece-dyed 
usually in shades of dark blue. 

YARN consists of any textile fibre prepared by the process of spinning 
for being- woven into cloth. There is no exception to the making- of 
woven cloth without the previous spinning- of yarn. As weaving- q. v. 
is shown to be among the earliest and most universal of the industries 
of mankind, the process of spinning yarn which of necessity precedes 
weaving, can be claimed as one of the primal employments of the race. 
Yarn is also the term applied to "woolen" fibre prepared for hand knit- 
ting. [See Factory, Hantk, Wool, Cotton, Linen.] 



Z 



ZEPHYR is a line "woolen" yarn made in two sizes, "split" and 
•single," used altogether for fancy work. [See Gingham.] 




WIDTHS, WEIGHTS AND" PICKS 



163 



THE FOLLOWING TABLES GIVE THE WIDTHS, NUMBER OF 
YARDS TO THE POUND, AND COUNTS OF THREADS 
TO THE INCH OF THE PRINCIPAL MAKES OF 
DOMESTIC COTTONS, GINGHAMS, DRIL- 
LINGS, TICKS, DENIMS, Etc. Etc. 



UNBLEACHED MUSLINS AND SHEETINGS, 





WIDTH 


YARDS 


COUNTS 






WIDTH 


YARDS 


COUNTS 


NAME. 


IN 


TO 


TO 


NAME. 


IN 


TO 


TO 




INCHES 


> POUND 


INCH 






INCHES. 


POUND 


. INCH 


Aberford St'rd. 


36 


2.84 


48x48 


Appleton,A 


36 


2.76 


48x52 


Acorn 


36 


4.00 


5ox56 




A 


35 


2.80 


44x50 


Adriatic 


36 








FineAA 35 


4.39 


60x60 


Agawan 


36 


4.00 


52x42 




FineAA 35 


4.37 


60x56 


Agawan.XX 


30 








GG 


35^ 


2.86 


52x56 


Albama 


27 


12.00 


36x36 




FineGG 35^ 


4.53 


56x60 


Albany, LL 


36 


4.00 


56x56 




R 


36 


3.70 


64x64 


" BB 


36 




64x72 




XX 


36 


4.17 


56x56 


Alaska 


36 


3.95 


72x80 


Archey 


Bunting 


• 36 


8.20 


44x48 


Alexandria 


42 






Arg-yle 


Family 


36 


3.62 


60x62 


Alpha 


36 


3.8 6 


64x68 


i i 


1 1 


40 


3.25 


60x62 


Allendale 


54 






Arizona 


36 






»j 


7-4 


2.36 


60x62 


Ascot 




36 




68x76 


n 


8-5 


2.02 


60x62 


Ashland 


36 






>? 


9-4 


1,84 


60x62 


Ashland 


36 


6.90 


44x42 


J5 


10-4 


1.65 


60x62 


AtlanttAA impvd.36 


3.00 


46x48 


)) 


11-4 


1:51 


60x62 


1 1 


AA 


36 


3.00 


46x48 


L 


12-4 


1.28 


60x62 


i t 


BB 


30 


3.59 


48x48 


Alligator 


27 


13.90 


26x26 


AtlanticA 


36 


2.85 


48x48 


11 


26 


13.55 


40x32 


1 1 


H 


36 


2.95 


52x56 


American, XX 


y 


2.54 


S2x56 


i i 


P 


36 


4.00 


56x56 


Amrcn. Mills,C.D. 36 


3.98 


52x48 


a 


D 


36 


3.33 


48x48 


Amory Mfg\ Co 


36 


3.84 


80x76 


i i 


V 


30 


3.61 


52x52 


>) 


36 


3.68 


76x76 


i i 


LL 


36 


5.03 


64x62 


" , LL 


40 


3.39 


80x72 


1. i 


LL 


36 


4.94 


64x62 


Anchor, L 


36 


6.65 


44x42 


1 1 




5-4 


2.69 


68x72 


Androscoggin 


46 


3.36 


72x72 


i i 




5-4 


2.74 


68x68 


ii 


48 


3.10 


72x72 


i i 




6-4 


2.18 


68x68 




7-4 


2.14 


72x72 


a 




7-4 


1.82 


68x68 




8-4 


1.87 


72x72 


1 1 




8-4 


1.68 


68x68 




9-4 


1.66 


72x72 


i i 




9-4 


1.46 


68x68 




10-4 


1.50 


72x72 


i i 




10-4 


1.32 


68x68 




11-4 


1.38 


72x72 


u 




11-4 


1.24 


68x68 


Antilope,A 


36 


3.26 


44x42 


( i 


Comet 


36 


3.45 


64x62 


Anniston 


36 


3.20 


48x42 


i 1 


Comet 


40 


3.11 


65x64 



164 WIDTHS, WEIGHTS AND PICKS 

Unbleached Muslins and Sheetings. — Continued. 





WIDTH 


YARDS 


COUNTS 




W I DT H 


YARDS 


COUNTS 


NAME 


IN 


TO 


TO 


NAME 


IN 


TO 


TO 




INCHES 


POUND 


INCH 




INCHES 


POUND 


INCH 


Atlas R 


35 


3.79 


60x60 


Burliontan 


4-4 






Augusta A No. 1 


36 


3.03 


48x48 


4 t 


7-8 






i i 


30 


3.63 


40x40 


Buckshead 


36 


2.85 


48x48 


i i 


27 


4.52 


40x40 


Buck's Head 


40 


3.17 


48x48 


Aurora LL 


36 


4.00 


56x60 


Buckingham 


36 






" C 


31 


5.50 


40x42 


Cabot, A(Dwight) 36 


2.97 


48x82 


R 


36 


3.59 


68x68 


" No. 10 (M) 35 




76x90 


" B 


36 




64x68 


" W 


36 


3.15 


48x58 


Badger State LL 


36 


4.00 


56x56 


Calvert Mfg. Co. 36 


2.93 


48x48 


RR 


36 


3.55 


64x62 


t ( 


36)4 


2.96 


48x18 


R 


36 


3.45 


64x62 


Cambria 


36 




* 


Bangor J 


30 


4.13 


48x42 


Calumet, A 


3<"> 


2.85 


48x48 


u p 


36 


2.90 


48x48 


B 


36 


2.95 


48x52 


" BB 


36 


4.05 


56x56 


C 


36 


3.30 


56x60 


" C 


30 


4.50 


56x56 


LL 


36 


6.U0 


56x56 


Beaver Dam LL 


36 


4.00 


56x56 


X 


36 


5.15 


48x48 


Bedford R 


30 


5.9 6 


64068 


Carlyle 


28 


5.25 


54x64 


Beacon 


36 


3.87 


56x56 


Cartwright 


36 


4.83 


48x52 


Bennington AL 


36 


3.15 


64x68 


CW 


36 


4.64 


52x5(5 


" . Fp 


36 


2.90 


48x48 


Cartwright Mil' 


s 36 


4.86 


" 


M 


36 


3.54 


60x 6 2 


Cary, G. W. 


36 


3.03 


48x42 


R 


30 


6-00 


64x62 


Cast-iron Brand C 36 


3.13 


68x72 


Black Crow 


36 


3.70 


60x62 


U 4 1 


£6 


3.07 


68x76 


i t 


36 


3.66 


60x62 


Centeral Falls 


36 


6.22 


44x40 


Black Rock 


36 


3.61 


64x68 


Century B 


36 


3.69 


6 8x73 


Boott FF Standard36 


2.89 


48x48 


" * B 


36 


4.08 


t i 


" Sterling 


36 


3.60 


60x 6 4 


" L 


2sy 2 


4.82 


64x62 


" 2d* 


36 


3.81 


60x60 


Century Cotton B 36 


3.69 


68x72 


i< ti 


36 


4.81 


62x60 


u a 


L 28 


4.g2 


64x64 


Boott Warwick C 


34 


4.09 


58x60 


Champion Mills K 31) 


5.92 


1 1 


AL 


i 36 


3.29 


68x68 


Chesterfield " 


A 3 6 


1.78 


48x40 


PL 


40 


2.86 


68x 6 8 


Chittenango A 


36 


4.70 


44x44 


Boston 


45 


2.08 


68x72 


Clarion LL 


^6 


4.00 




(< 


50 


2.22 


72x72 


Clifton CCC 


36 


3.03 


48x42 


c« 


5-4 


2.49 


68x62 


" CCC 


36^ 


2.87 


(< 


u 


6-4 


2.29 


68x 6 8 


" cc 


31 


3-64 


i . 


4 t 


7-4 


1.97 


72x72 


Comet C 


3 6 


3.45 


64x66 


i i 


8-4 


1.73 


72x72 


t< 


36 


3.11 


t< 


i i 


9-4 


1.52 


72x72 


Common Sense 


36 


4.02 


68x40 


10- 


1.38 


72x72 


Conestoga W 


36 


3. 6 1 


60x72 


Coynton 


28 


8.38 


56x59 


S 


33 


4.18 


. . 


Broadway 


39 


4.50 


44x66 


G 


30 


4.73 


tf 


Brighton Mills A 40 


3.18 




D 


28 


5.11 


i 4 


R 


36 


3.18 




Conestogo 


10-4 


12.8 


56x52. 


Busy Bee 


36 


4.35 


64x64 


i k 


11-4 


1.12 


i i 


i i 


33 






Constitution 


36 


3.48 


64x68 


1 1 


7-8 






i i 


40 


3.14 


i i 



WIDTHS, WEIGHTS AND PICKS 
Unbleached Muslins and Sheetings.— Continued. 



165 





WIDTH 


YARDS < 


30UNTS 


WIDTH YARDS COUNTS 


NAME 


IN 


TO 


TO 


NAME 


IN 


TO 


TO 




INCHES 


POUND 


INCH 


INCHES POUND 


INCH 


Constitution 


42 


2.93 


t I 


Granite B 


32 


4.77 


48x52 


1 1 


45 


2.76 


it 


Graniteville A 


36 


3.00 


48x52 


a 


48 


2.7 6 


64x62 


EE 


36 


3.00 


48x48 


Continental C 


36 


3.50 


64x68 


C 


27 


4.67 


40x40 


D 


40 


3.27 


68z72 


RR 


27 


3.77 


48x48 


D 


40 


3.05 


64x72 


RR 


29 


3.42 


52x52 


E 


.42 


2.02 


64x78 


Great Falls E 


36 


3.00 


52x56 


W 


45 


2.75 


64x68 


.. « j 


36 


4.27 


64x68 


H 


48 


2. 6 3 


i i 


" N 


36 


5.17 


50x48 


Cotton Val. Mis. 


C3 6 


3.79 


60x62 


k4 XX 


36 


4.60 


56x56 


Crown XXX 


36 


2.85 


48x48 


Great Western 


36 


2.98 


48x48 


Darling-ton 


36 


2.85 




Greyst'ne St'm Mil 36 


3.70 


64x66 


Decature 


28 


8.68 


52x52 


Hamilton Mills 


36/ 2 


5.15 


44x42 


Des Moines 


36 


4.00 


64x72 


Harold M 


36 


4.17 


59X60 


Dwight 


36 


3.95 


76x82 


Hartford A 


35 


5.25 




" ImprovedX30 


5. 6 5 


62x 6 2 


Henrietta EE 


36 


3.82 




a a 


27 


4.73 


60x 6 2 


Here You Are 


36 3 X 


5.51 


52x48 


" DMC 


36 


3.31 


72x72 


Hildreth A 


36^ 


2.8 6 


44x48 


(( a 


36 


3.97 


79x80 


Hill Semper Idem 


36 


4.10 


80x62 


" Star 


36 


4.02 


08x76 


Hill Semper Idem 


36 


3.83 




it u 


40 


3.38 


t< 


Honest Household 36 


4.15 


72x82 


' ' Anchor 


36 


3.25 


72x72 


Honest Width 


36 


3.50 


60X60 


a a 


40 


3.00 


i i 


< i 


36 3 /i 


5.51 


52x48 


Echo Lake 


36 


3.60 


72x68 


Hoosier LL 


36 


4.00 




" 


40 


3.49 


64x62 


Housewf Fr'nd LL 36 


3.98 




Eldorado 


36 


3.20 


68x62 


" extra 


36 


4.95 


52x56* 


Enterprise EE 


36 


3.95 


52x72 


Hugenot Mills C 


36 


3.94 


52x56 


Ettrick AA 


36^ 


2.81 


48x48 


A 


36 


2.73 


48x48 


" EE 


36 


2.91 


48x48 


A 


36 


3.37 


48x48 


Exeter A 


36 


4.08 


64x62 


B 


36 


2.75 


48x48 


- " S 


33 


4.56 


64x62 


Huron D 


35i 


4.53 


56x'56 


" c 


40 






Indiana Stndrd C 


36 


3.25 


40x50 


Farmer A 


35 


4.00 


58x58 


LL 


36 


4.00 


56x56 


". BB 


32 


4.55 


64x62 


Indian Head A 


36 


2.83 


46*50 


" extra No. 


1 28 


6.59 


60x60 


E 


48 


2.12 


46x50 


Fine Sheetings 


36 


5.15 


44x42 


D 


49 


2.57 


44x50 


Forest Mills 


36 


3.65 


68x68 


B 


30 


3.42 


48x48 


Fountain City 


36 


4.63 


48x54 


Invincible 


30 


5.16 




Foxhall A 


27 


4.33 


36x42 


Ironside A 


36 


3.02 


48x48 


Fruit of the Loom 8-4 


1.70 


68x68 


Irving Mills XX 


36 


3.92 




a o 


9-4 


1.55 


68x68 


Jollico Mills B 


30 


3.70 




it u 


10-4 


1.32 


68x68 


Jones' long clothC 39| 


3.59 




Glendale 


36 


2.95 


44x42 


King Mfg Co AA 


36 


3.03 




k i 


30 


3.40 




EC 


32 


4.52 


56x60 


B 


36 


4.02 




Laconia 


63 


2.38 


64x66 


Good as Wheat 


36 


4.10 


76x84 


it 


72 


2.12 


.i 


Grafton extra A 


28 


6.95 


64x98 


a 


81 


1.80 


a 



1()() WIDTHS, WEIGHTS AND PICKS 

Unbleached Muslins and Sheetings. — Continued. 







WIDTH 


YARDS 


counTS 






WIDTH 


YARDS 


COUNTS 


11AME 




in 


TO 


TO 


NAME 




111 


TO 


TO 






inches 


POUTED 


inch 




■ 1 


I1CHES 


POU11D 


incH 


Lacqnia 




90 


1.65 


n 


Mohawk Vly. Mis 


. 90 


1.53 


I ( 


a 




99 


2.48 


a 


.' ( 


■ 


99 


1.36 


a 


Lake George AA 


36 


3.15 


50x42 


a 


" A 31 




56x56 


1 1 


A A 


36 


4.38 


56x60 


Monticello, 


XXX 


29^ 


3.82 


50x38 


Lanark A 




36 


4.27 


42x46 


Monadnock 




72 


2.00 


62x60 


" B 




30 


5.27 


1 1 


a 




81 


1.92 


C( 


'.' C 




27 


6-00 


1 1 


i t 




90 


1.82 


( i 


Langlev A 




36 


3.00 


i i 


i t 




99 


1.70 


it 


A 




50 


3.90 


i t 


it 


A 


36 


5.20 


48x52 


i c 




27 


4.60 


1 1 


Nonhansett Mfg.C 


3 36 




72x62 


Lehigh E 




36 


9.00 


36x36 


Mystic River 


36 


5.50 


48x52 


Lock wood 


A 


39 


3.60 


68x76 


Nashua, E, 


Fine 


40 


3.70 


68x68 


t t 


C 


30 


4.35 


1 1 


R 




36 


3.53 


62x98 


i i 


B 


36 


3.88 


68x68 


a y 




42 


2.95 


68x68 


i i 


R 


36 


3.75 


68x72 


" O 




33 


3.80 


72x72 


t 1 


D 


28 


7.20 


68x68 


a p 




45 


2.72 


68x68 


f < 


F 


30 


6.59 


a 


w 




48 


2.56 


f i 


it 




42 


3.04 


62x72 


Nantuck Lh 


eeting 


90 


2.19 


68x56 


i' 




54 


2.32 


68x72 


Notches, A 




36 


3.25 


48x48 


Lock wood 




63 


2.11 


66x68 


F 




36 


4.15 


40x42 


1 1 




72 


1.75 


a 


2 




353 


2-52 


60x60 


i f 




81 


1.56 


it 


1 




30 


4.20 


48z48 


a 




90 


1.42 


i t 


G 




30 


5.00 


40x42 


i i 




99 




n 


H 




36 






Lonsdale 




36 




76x88 


S 




30 


4.50 


6 0x 6 2 


•Lowell 




60 


2.13 


56x60 


Neposet 




36 • 


5.50 


52x52 


Log Cabin 




36 






New Hartfo 


rd, A A 3. 


4. 6 


42x42 


Louise 




35| 

40 


3.54 


76x88 


Newburg 

" C 




36 
31 


4.19 


59x00 


Lyman, A 




45 


2.35 


48x49 


Newberry Mills, A 35 


2.87 


48x48 


" B 




40 


2.56 


48x52 


Newport, A 




36 


4-44 




Macon, A 




36 


2.87 


48x48 


D 




36 


4.50 


52x56 


Mass, Fine J 


29 


4 03 


it 


Newmarket 


B 


36* 


4.77 


48x52 


t i. 


Stand' d 36 


2.90 


a 


a 


G 


36 


4.90 


SexgO 


it 


BB 


26 


4.00 


60x60 


i i 


N 


36 


4.00 


62x62 


••' 


C 


28 


4.38 


40x40 


n 


DD 


36 


4.58 


52x90 


Marlboro 




63 


2.07 


72x62 


i 1 


X 


36 






a 




81 




68x72 


i ; 


K 


31 


5.8 6 


6 2x 6 8 


a 




81 


1.45 


72x82 


i i 


KK 


29 






Maginnis, 


BE 


36 


4.00 




New York Mills, 


38 


2.20 


Q,'^^ 


Master Woikman 


D 36* 


3.38 




a 


" 


57 


1.82 


66 x 6° 


Mechanics 


,AA 


36 


12.23' 


32x28 


1 i 


'• 81 


78 


1.25 


6 4x 6 8 


Michigan . 


LL 


36 


4.00 




1. 


•< 90 


86 


1.25 


1 1 


Mohawk Vly. ML 


3. 63 


2.00 


68x68 


1 j 


" 99 


98 


1.12 


a 


a 


•• 


38 


2.12 


62x66 


( : 


' 100 10( 


1.00 


it 


a 


1 1 


72 


1.98 


62x62 


Niobe, R 




36 


4.52 


a 


it 


n 


81 


1.70 


a 


Nonparel 




36 


5.28 


52x56 



WIDTHS, WEIGHTS AND PICKS 
Unbleached Muslins and Sheetings. — Continued. 



167 





WIDTH 


YARDS 


COUNTS 




WIDTH 


YARDS 


COUNTS 


NAME 


IN 


TO 


TO 


NAME 


IN 


TO 


TO 




INCHES 


POUND 


INCH 




INCHES 


POUND 


INCH 


Oela, XX 


28 




40x40 


Portsmouth, B 


31 


9.41 


48x48 


Oriental Bunting 


,A36 


10.28 


36x32 


Prescott, h 


36 


4.50 


64x64 


a a 


36 


10.52 




Pride of the Nat] 


on 36 


3.85 


84x84 


Ozark A A 


36 


• 2.79 


48x52 


Prairie Bunting- 


A 36 


8.63 


44x36 


Pacific. Extra 


36 


2.85 


50x50 


Princton, 491 


36 


3.93 


56x60 


" ' H 


36 


3.15 


56x56 


Rexford St'nd'd AA 36 


2.76 


48x44 


a 


54 


4.22 


68x68 


Rchmnd Co Mis. 


BD 36 


4.69 


48x52 


t c 


63 


1-87 


68x72 


Riverside Mis. XX 36 


5.36 


52x48 


(( 


72 


1.62 


66x72 


Rosalie F 


36 


2.96 


48x48 


Pacolet Mfg. Co. 


36 


4.07 


56x60 


Ro}7al Standard 


36 


2.90 


52x52 


Pacolet, LL 


36 


4.00 




Ro)^ Standard 


35 


3.60 


48x48 


PalatKa Bunting, 


351 


8.72 


56x62 


Salsbury E 


39 


3.40 


64x64 


Park. A 


33 


4.32 


42x50 


R 


36 


3.72 


64x64 


Pembroke 


45 


2.15 


60x68 


O 


33 


4.05 


64x64 


1 1 


63 




60x68 


N 


30 


4.40 


64x64 


£( 


72 


2.15 


< t 


Saracen 


36 


4.38 


54x60 


Pembrooke 


81 


1.85 


1 1 


Saranac A 


36 


4.83 


52x25 


1 1 


90 


1.62 


C I 


E 


40 


3.08 


68x68 


Pepperell, E 


40 


3.55 


66xg8 


" R 


36 


3.45 


64x68 


R 


36 


3.70 


64x64 


Scotia Mills O M 36^ 


4.72 


48x48 


i i 


63 


2.36 


<. i 


Sea Shore Sh'ting-s27>^ 


2.73 


40x32 


" 


72 


2.10 


c i 


Shawmut LL 


36 


4.00 


52x52 


; i 


81 


1.79 


c t 


XX 


36 


3.16 


64x64 


i t 


90 


1.62 




Sherman 


30 


5.09 


46x40 


.< 


66 


1.57 


a 


Sibley B 


40 


2.56 




Pequa 


90 


1.51 


i i 


Statue of libert-v 


' 36 


3.97 


60x68 


Pequot, A 


36 


3.17 


C l 


Stark AA 


36 


2.85 


48x48 


1 1 


50 


2.18 


72x76 


Superior W. E. 


36 


4.85 


48x52 


1 1 


63 


2.08 


1 1 


" Sea Island 36 


4.00 


56x56 


" 


72 


1.71 


i ' 


Sun Tissues W 


37 


9.00 


48x50 


«, 1 


81 


1.45 


l ' 


Tit for Tat Al 


36 


4.15 


56x60 


<. i 


90 


1.33 


" 


Tremont CC 


36 


4.00 


48x22 


a 


99 


1.22 


68x76 


Utica C 


36 


4.19 


48x44 


Perkins, X 


30 


4.67 


60x60 


Utica Cotton Co 


36 


5.45 


48x44 


Y 


33 


4.31 


64x64 


Utica Steam Mills 39 


3.15 


68x84 


Z 


36 


3.90 


64x64 


" Non 40 


2.94 


92x96 


Pheonix, A A 


39 


3.59 


64x64 


it a 


' 48 


2.23 


68x72 


Piedmont 


36 


3.09 


48x48 


a a 


' 58 


1.91 


64x64 


i i 


30 




38x44 


" " 


' 9-4 


1.37 


64x69 


l 4 


27 


4.62 


48x44 


it n 


'10-4 


1.38 


68x68 


Ptymouth, H 


29y 


i 4.96 




a tt 


'11-4 


1.15 


68x68 


Pocahontas, R 


36 


3.90 


80x72 


U a 


'12-4 


.98 


64x68 


E 


40 


3.65 


80x72 


Verona 


36 


3.77 


88x84 


Pocasset Canoe, 


E 40 


3.10 


64x64 


Victoria R 


36 


3.58 


64x64 


Pocasset, C 


36 


3.63 


64x64 


AA 


36 


3.95 


52x52 


O 


33 




64x64 


LL 


36 


3.95 


52x56 


Port-mouth. P 


28 


7.00 


63r6i 


E 


40 




64x64 



168 WIDTHS, WEIGHTS AND PICKS 

Unbleached Muslins and Sheetings. — Continued. 





WIDTH 


YARDS 


COUNTS 




WIDTH 


YARDS 


COUNTS 


NAME 


IN 


TO 


TO 


NAME 


m 


TO 


TO 




INCHES 


POUND 


INCH 




inCHES 


pounD 


incH 


Volunteer L 


36 


5.42 




Wamsutta 


81 


1.30 


72x76 


B 


32 


5.98 




i i 


90 


1.15 


72x76 


C 


28 


8.18 




i t 


99 


1.05 


72x76 


D 


28 


6.93 




i i 


108 


• 96 


72x76 


Wachusett A 


36 


2.85 


48x48 


Washington A 


36 


3.59 


52x60 


B 


30 


3.42 


48x48 


Waterville 


36 


5.15 


64x68 


1 1 


40 


2.57 


48x52 


Whitfield, Fine 


40 


3.57 


59x60 


(C 


48 


2.12 


48x52 


Windsor H 


36 


5.34 


52x48 


Wamsutta 


■ 59 


1.80 


72x76 


Williamvill Sea 


Is.36 


3.90 


80x80 


1 1. 


72 


1.45 


72x76 


Yardstick 


36 


3.52 


60X60 



BLEACHED MUSLINS AND SHEETINGS 



WIDTH YARDS COUNTS 

IN TO TO 

INCHES POUND INCH 



Allendale 




6-4 


2.55 64x90 


i i 




7-4 


2.35 64x60 


i i 




8-4 


2.08 64x60 


a 




9-4 


1.87 64x60 


1 1 




10-4 


1.53 6^X60 


1 1 




11-4 


1.50 64x60 


Alexandria 




36 


3.73 80x80 


i i 




42 


3.29 72x72 


i i 




46 


3.23 72x72 


Alpine Rose batist36 


4.50 194x96 


" twilled 


36 


3.70 84x96 


Amory 




36 


3.70 88x88 


Androscoggin 


AA36 


3.98 88x88 


1 1 


L 


36 


4.17 80x76 


a 




42 


3.64 72x64 


a 




46 


3.37 


a 




6-4 


2.57 


u 




7-4 


2.20 


i i 




8-4 


1.92 


( i 




9-4 


1.71 


a 




10-4 


1.54 


Art Cambric 




36 


100x92 


Ashbyrne 




36 


84x88 


Aurora 




36 


3.80 88x82 


" Cambric 


36 


100x100 


Ballardville 




36 


5.00 64x64 


Barker 




36 


4.25 80x80 


Bay Mills 




36 


3.91 88x82 



WIDTH YARDS COUI1TS 
in TO TO . 

inches pounD inch 



BB muslin cambrc 36 

Beaver Fall Mills 26 

Berkely cambric 36 

Berkely, No 60 36 

" No 150 36 

" No 180 36 

" Madapolam 36 

Berkshire X 36 

" Hiwatha 36 

Berkshire Lil}' 33 

" Peacock 31 

" Bugle 31 

" XIX 27 

Big - Bonanza 30 

Blackburn AA 36 

Boott R 28 

"E 3 6 

Cabot 36 

Cabot 31 

Canoe River 27 

Champion 36 

Chapman X 36 

Charter Oak 36 

Chesnut Hill 36 

Clinton Al 24 

Commonwealth O 27 

Conestoga Mills 10- 

" " 90 



5.90 100x80 

7.85 64x60 
5.27112x112 

5.58 88x82 
5.27 120x107 
7.32 120x128 
4.30 102x100 

4.50 80x80 



5.39 
5.75 
6-20 
6-20 

5.18 
4.80 
5.93 
4.35 
4.65 
5.67 
7.70 
5.50 
4.31 
4.80 
5.20 
4.30 
8.00 
1.11 



56X60 
72x 6 8 

60X60 
60X60 
56X60 
62x60 

68x72 

68x60 
62x 6 4 
80x76 
80x76 
60x% 
60x56 
72x64 
64x64 
64x60 
84x80 
56x52 
60x48 
60x48 



WIDTHS, WEIGHTS AND PICKS 
Bleached Muslins and Sheetings. — Continued. 



169 



WIDTH YARDS COUNTS 

NAME. IN TO TO 

INCHES POUND INCH 

Continental Mills 36 3.20 70x60 

H 48 2.62 64x68 

LN 36 4.00 88x88 

A 36 4.20 84x84 

half blchd 36 68x72 

Copper Fastened 35}4 4.38 60x56 

Cumberland 36 80x84 

Dauntless ?6 5.85 60x60 

Davol Mill 36 3.75 48x88 

Defiance 36 3.90 82x90 

36 3.90 87x82 

DeSoto Mills E 36 3.12 52x46 

Dimnd Hill Cmbrc 36 7.05 87x80 

Dwig-ht Anchor Co 36 3.47 76x76 

Dyerville A 36 4.00 80x76 

Edward Harris 30 4.75 72x72 

Ellerton WS 36 4.5o 72x72 

Exeter 36 4.20 72x68 

30 5.00 72x67 
F-PF Cambric 36 88x76 
Fairfax 3e T 4 4.00 87x80 
Fairmount Q 36 5.00 64x64 
Farmer's Choice 36 5.00 
Farwell Mill4 36 4.29 80x80 

42 3.72 

45 3.48 
Fearless-of -all-Competition 

36 4.45 72x72 

Fidelity 36 4.20 82x80 

First Bale 36 5.52 68x62 

First Call 36 4.20 

Fitch ville 36 4.50 72x72 

Forestdale 36 4.25 80x76 

Forrest Mills 36 5.00 72x68 

36 4.77 

31 5.70 62x68 

30 4.10 88x82 
Fruit of the Loom 36 4.10 " 

31 4.22 

" (100s) 36 3.72 100x100 

31 4.22 82x80 

42 3.62 

50 2.90 87x72 

45 3.07 89x72 

48 2.77 

6£ 1-97 80x60 

" (extra)72 1.70 



WIDTH YARDS COUNTS 

NAME. IN TO TO 

INCHES. POUND. INCH 

81 1.49 

90 1.12 " 

90 1.42 72x64 
Gem of the Spindle 36 80x76 

George Washington XX 

36 3.72 74x72 

Gold Medal 36 4.27 

32^ 5.47 72x64 

GreatFlsMfgCo J 39^ 4.27 63x68 

S Tiger 31 5.18 72x68 

M Dog- 33 4.62 76x72 

Great Republic ' 36 4.20 80x80 

Green G 36 5.00 64x64 

Grinnell fine 40 3.47 104x96 

45 3.21100x100 

50 2.59104x92 

63 2.58 

72 2.04 

" 99 1.52 " 

Hero 36 4.70 72x72 

Highland Mills 36 4.70 76x98 

Hillsdale Mfg Co 36 5.00 68x68 

Hills Semper Idem 36 4.24 80x80 

36 4.27 34x76 

36 4.27 

42 3.75 

'.' 45 3.44 

HEP Fine Cambric 35^ 5.75 84x72 

Homesville B 36 4.16 64x64 

H & E 36 4.85 72x86 

H&E 31 6.00 68x64 

WT 33 5.75 

XXX 36 4.50 72x68 

Homespun 36 4.15 76x76 

Hope ' 36 4.89 76x72 

Howe 36 4.55 

Ideal O 36 5.29 60x40 

IndianHead Shrunk 35 48x48 

Indurstry 36 56x56 

Jack Horner 30 5.72 64x64 

Jacque Rose Com t Cambric 

36 5.40 84x84 

Jacque Rose Cmbrc 36 5.49 " 

J. C. Knight Cmbrc 33 4.80 

Jewett City Mills 48 3.55 76x84 

Jumping Horse 36 4.75 68x64 

Just Out 27 6.15 60x64 



170 WIDTHS, WEIGHTS AND PICKS 

Bleached Muslins and Sheetings. — Continued. 



WIDTH 


YARDS COUNTS 






WIDTH 


YARDS COl 


NAME 


IN 


TO TO 


NAME. 


IN 


TO 


TO 


INCJ 


POUND INCH 






INCH S. 


POUND. 


1 N C 1 1 


King Phillip AP 


36 


3.70 84x84 


Mohaw 


k Vly 


81 


1.77 


68x60 


CP 


3ft 


3.57 


1 


1 


" 81 


1.79 


1 1 


Cambric 30 


5.75 96x104 


i. 




" 90 


1.52 


72x60 


Knights Cambric 




7.00 84 


i 




99 


1.27 


64x62 


Loconia Mills 


46 


2/25 64x64 


Monabi 


lock 


72 


2.11 


68x51 


t< 


50 


2.70 


i 1 




72 


2.15 


< i 


tc 


63 


•' 


1. 1 




81 


2.X7 


1 1 


ti 


72 


2.09 


" 




90 


1-62 


1 i 


i i 


81 


1.89 


1. 1 




99 


2.52 


1 1 


(< 


90 


1.55 


People's Cry ( v he) ?>q 




72x56 


Good-Ni.s 


Pepper 


-11 K 


40 


3.55 


66xt8 




46 


2.70 96x80 


t . 


R 


36 


3.70 


64x64 


Lafaette 


36 


5.00 64x64 


1 i 


O 


33 


4.00 


" 


Lancaster 


90 


1.90 64x52 


it 


N 


30 


4.50 


1 4 


Landseer 


36 


4.10 80x80 


t . 




45 


2.00 




Langdon GB 


36 


3.87 92x82 


' k 




48 




i 1 


"7(3" 


36 


3.80 88x82 


it 




63 


2.50 


1 1 


4 i 


42 


i i 


t t 




72 


2.10 


1 i 


Lily of the Valley 1 


l t 




72 


1.95 


a 




36 


4.25 76x68 


ii 




81 


1.79 


" 


Linwood 


36 


4.30 84x80 


it 




90 


1.70 


t i 


Little Chief C'ttons Sq 


4.71 80x62 


4 t 




99 


1.27 


i t 


Loch Lamond Cmbrs36 5.27 76x68 


( t 




108 


1.00 


i i 


Lockwood VW 


36 


3.75 88x82 


t t 




SI 


1.72 


72x60 


a a 


42 


3.12 72x62 


t t 


Mfg. 


Co.Ex-GH Twills 


a a 


42 


3.12 68x62 






36 


3.27 100x60 


ii it 


45 


2.99 


Pequa 




■ 90 


1.51 


64x 6 4 


H (< 


45 


3.01 


Pequot 


A He 


aw 36 


3.20 


68x62 


U a 


50 


2.57 


" 


B 


40 


2.80 


64x64 


it u 


72 


1.89 


( . 




45 


2.59 


72x76 


a 1 1 


81 


1.77 


" 


W 


43 


2.32 


68x76 


1 1 it 


90 


1.55 


i < 




54 


2.18 


72x70 


Lonsdale 


36 


4.21 84x80 


i 1 




54 


2.29 


72x68 


(< 


32 


4.70 


I t 




63 


2.07 


72x76 


Cambric 36 


104x06 


( ( 




63 


1.89 


72x62 


" Nameless Star Sq j / 2 4.27 80x72 


it 




72 


1.71 


72x76 


Madapolam Cmbrcs 3e4.40 108x100 


It 




72 


1.68 


72x73 


Magic 


?6 


8.29 53x40 


( ( 




81 


1.45 


72x76 


Masonvill 


36 


4.02 84x82 


i I 




81 


1.49 


72x72 


i i. 


36 


3.97 


t t 




90 


1.33 


72x76 


Melrose Mill 


36 


3.90 84x88 


I I 




99 




68x76 


Milton Falls 


36 


5.00 64x62 


Perkins Z 


36 


3.90 


64x64 


Mohawk 


63 


2.22 75x60 


" 


Y 


33 


4.31 


1 1 


Mohawk Vly. Mis 45 


2.^1 64x63 


i i 


X 


30 


4.67 


60x69 


n 1 1 


54 


2.57 


Pheonix XX 


39 


3.59 


62x62 


it it 


63 


2.21 72x60 


Piedmont 


36 


3.09 


48x48 


it it 


72 


1.87 


1 ( 




30 




. 1 



WIDTHS, WEIGHTS AND PICKS 
Bleached Muslins and Sheetings.— Continued. 



171 



WIDTH YARDS COUNTS 
NAME IN TO TO 

INCHES POUND INCH 

Piedmont 81 1.'88 " 

90 1.70 
108 1.10 
Monohansett h'f b'ld 36 4.45 72xg2 

" Mfg- Co 3 6 2< 
NashauE 3 6 3.50 75x68 

" P 45 

" W 45 

Naumkeag- Twill 72 



81 

90 

Netherwobd 3g 

New Candidate 35^ 

New Bedford Sh't'ng-81 

45 

48 

50 

54 

63 

72 

81 

36 

36 



3.11 
3.02 
1.50 
1.45 
2.28 
4.20 
4.72 



76x80 
80x72 



New Jersey 

Newmarket 

New York Mis Ext 36 
" W't'r Tw'st 3 6 
45 
54 
72 
81 
90 
90 
99 
31 
32 

36 
36 
30 

36 
36 



1.89 

1.50 

.73 

4.55 

4.87 



72: 



'6 



"_ 100 
No Dicker 
Oak Grove 
Oak Lawn 
Our Choice 
Our Own 
Our Reliance 
Paragon 
Peabody Mills H 36 
Pelham Q 36 

3 6 

Pembroke 54 

63 
63 

27 



92x82 
88x82 
76X68 
6 8x 6 2 
96x96 
92x102 

2.6l 6 8x5 6 

2.07 

1.5u 

1.22 

1.20 

1.20 

1.00 

4.75 

5.17 

5.17 

4.50 

5.72 

5.70 

4.50 

4.70 

4.70 

4.70 

4.70 

2.55 

2.50 



60x48 
72x68 
6 8x 6 2 
72x 6 8 
6 8x 6 
72x 6 2 
76x82 
6 2x 6 2 
60x56 
72x 6 8 
60x52 
6 8x 6 



4.62 



62x62 
60x68 





WIDTH 


YARDS 


COUNTS 


NAME. 


IN 


TO 


TO 




INCHES 


POUND 


INCH 


Pocahontas R 


36 


3.90 


80x72 


E 


40 


3.10 


64x94 


D 


30 






Pocasset Canoe E 40 


3.10 


64x64 


Pocasset C 


36 


3.63 


a 


O 


33 




(. i 


Portsmouth C 


36 






B 


31 


9.41 


48x48 


P 


28 


8.00 


64x64 


Prescott L 


36 


4.50 


1 1 


Pride-of-the-Nation 36 


3.85 


84x84 


•Preston 


36 






Princton 401 


36 


3.90 


56x60 


Quinnbaug- Co 


36 


4.70 


80x72 


Rochdale (h'f bl'd) 36 


4.90 


68x68 


Rosaland (As You Like It) 






36 




76x76 


a a 


36 


4.32 


i i 


Second to None 


36 


5.22 


68x60 


Security 


30 


6.20 


60x56 


SenateMills(h'fbl'd)36 


4.18 


68x72 


Signal A 


32 


3.77 


64x64 


V B 


27 


6.12 


i i 


Social Q 


36 


4.75 


80x76 


" L 


36 


5.10 


72x73 


" W 


36 


5.97 


68x64 


Standard 


36 


4.15 


88x84 


Standish 


36 


4.25 


80x76 


Star W 


36 


5.20 


64x64 


Sun 


36 


3.57 


80x68 


Sunlight 


27 




56x60 


Superior American 36 




76x80 


" Royal Bnting- 36 


' 8.97 


42x40 


Telegraph 


30 


6.00 


60x52 


Ten Strike 


36 


4.50 


72x68 


Triumph 


36 


5.70 


68x90 


Tuscarora Mills 


36 


3.28 


80x64 


t i 


36 


3.28 


i 1 


Universal 


36 


3.55 


80x76 


Utica Cot Ex Hvy 36 


3.00 


68x64 


" Nonparel 


36 


3.20 


92x96 


" Ex heavy 


36 


3.55 


96x80 




5-4 


2.72 


68x60 




6-4 


2.17 


1 1 




8-4 


1.31 


a 




8-4 


1.70 


72x72 


" Stopm M1 


o >ZO 


1.^0 


73^0 



172 



WIDTHS, WEIGHTS AND PICKS 
Bleached Muslins and Sheetings. — Continued. 



WIDTH YARDS COUNTS 
NAME. IN TO TO 

INCHES. POUND. INCH 

Utica 9-4 1.35 68x64 

10-4 1.21 
10-4 1-70 
100 1.14 
" Dmnd. U 36 3.47 72x72 
Valley Mills Q 32^ 7.89 60*60 
Q 25 6.80 52x44 
WalthamXX(h'f bl'd) 36 3.50 72x60 
Wamsutta MlsO-XX36 3.50 92x92 
"ST 45 2.22 72x64 

50 2.28 88x88 
60 3.40 
" Cambric 36 68x54 

" Cambric fine 36 6.15 100x96 
81 3.47 88x88 
45 3.09 72x72 
54 1.98 
63 2.07 
72 1.50 
81 1.29 
81 1.29 72x72 
90 1.17 
90 1.17 72x68 
99 1.08 
108 
Ex Hvy Jean 36 4.82 68x68 
Gold Medal 36 4.82 
•' NB 36 3.25 



WIDTH YARDS COUNTS 
III TO TO 

incHES pounD incH 



WamsutNight Rbs 36 4.82 

d'bl warp £5}i 2.82 80x60 
Warren Mfsr. Co. linen fine 



Washington 
Wessacumcon B 
D 
Water Witch 



ST 
Twilled 



Twilled 
ST 



36 

36 

36 

36 
36 
36 
36 
36 



5.00 64x64 



4.29 



Wauregan 100's 
No 1 
" Cambric 36 
White Hall 36 

White Horse 36 

White Rock 36 

Whiting- 36 

Whitinsville Cotton Mills 



100x100 

3.90 88x88 

108x92 

4.75 72x80 

64x64 

88x80 



5.0o 
4.10 



Williamsville Al 
Winchester 
Winona 
Winthrop AA 
E 

Woodbury 
World Wide 
Worth 



36 

36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
42 
45 
36 
36 
36 



4.50 
4.58 
3.59 



80x76 
88x94 



3.50 88x84 



3.50 
2.75 
5.29 



60x68 
i< 

64x64 



4.80 72x60 



TICKINGS. 



WIDTH YARDS COUNTS 
NAME IN TO TO 

INCHES POUND INCH 

Amoskeag Mf g Co 32 1.97 52x80 
31^ 2.00 
" ACA 36 2.85 
31^ 1.94 
31^ 2.03 
" A30>^@31 2.27 
" B 36 2.50 

" crimpd 30@31 2.59 56x56 
" D 30@31 2.60 
" F 31 3.07 

"XX 32 1.87 56x68 



WIDTH YARDS COUI1TS 

iiame in to to 

inches pounD inch 

Amoskeag Mfg. Co. 

X 31@32 2.70 54x60 
" Awn'g sat'n 31 1.97 54x80 
" Garniture 32 2.01 
Belgrade fey rod 135 30 2.77 76x52 
Berwick Mfg Co BA fancy 

colored 30 5*. 82 84x64 

Brandywine Mills No 10 
Conestoga Stm Mis 33 2.00 
". Prem A 36 2.00 
" FF 33 2.00 



WIDTHS, WEIGHTS AND PICKS 
TICKINGS.— Continued. 



173 



INCHES 

Conestog-a Extra 36 

" Gold Mdl 36 
" CT 39 

" CCA 31>4 

" AA 29 

" fncyredRR33 
Cordis, ACE 32 

" No. 1 32 

" No. 2 32 

" No. 3 30 

" WS 29 

Challenge fancy 30 

Endurance, fancy 32 
Everett plaid PT 30 
Farmer's 

Hamilton Mfg- Co 30^ 
BT 30 



WIDTH YARDS COUNTS 
IN TO TO 

POUND INCH 



Horse Head 
Jewett City 
Lenox, fancy 



First Prize B 
C 



D 

N 
B 



30 
3ltf 

30^ 

30^ 

30 

32 

32 

30 

30 

30 



2.25 
2.50 
2.20 
2.42 
2.58 
3.40 
2.00 
2.07 
2.07 
2.22 
2.50 
4.00 
3.82 
3.71 
2.77 
2.40 
2.88 
2,42 
2.54 
2.50 
3.48 
2.95 
3.45 
3.92 
2.16 
3.84 
3.71 
2.93 
2.83 



32x60 



60x74 
36x74 

44x96 

36x80 
56x5e 

68x48 
64x44 
64x48 
72x44 
76x40 
64x48 
36x84 



52x88 



WIDTH YARDS COUNTS 

IN TO TO 

INCHES POUND INCH 



52x84 
48x84 
64x36 

76x52 



First Prize D 30 2.68 

" E 30 2.90 

Ocean 27 4.83 

Old Clock Tick C 30 2.83 
(I)C 30 2.98 
G 31)4 2.08 
C 30 2.54 
G 31^ 1.97 
K 28^ 4.68 60x40 
" R 30 3.59 72x42 

Omega mdl sup ext 36^ 2.38 72x76 
" superior 42 2.37 " 
" fncy RD 31 2.16 58x88 
Randolph Mis blue 29^ 3.51 60x36 
Rosemout Mills RLT fancy 

31^ 3.34 72x36 
XXX 32 3.09 104x40 
Ticrer Mills No 1 33 2.05 



Nol 

No 2 
No 3 
No 3 



32 

33 

32} 

31 

31 

31 



XXX twls 33 

XXXX 33 

fancy 

Swift River 30 

Triumph Mfg- Co 30 

York AA 32 

" T 30 



COTTON DRILLS. 



INCHES 


POUND 


Boott Standard 30 


2.85 


Clifton K 30 


2.87 


Darling-ton Mills 28^< 2.87 


Eureka 29^ 


2.77 


J P King- Mfg- Co 30 


2.93 


London Mills XX 30 


3.52 


Masschus'ts stan'd30 


2.85 


" DN 27 


3.05 


" .G 30 


2.80 


Normandie stan'd 29 


2.73 


Pacolet Mfg- Co 29^ 


2.87 


Pepperell brown 29 


2.84 



WIDTH YARDS COUNTS 
IN TO TO 



76x88 
76x52 
76x52 
72x48 
68x48 
64x38 



70x52 
68x22 

72x52 



WIDTH 
IN 



Pepperell ble'ch'd 27 

" drag-on 27^ 
Plymouth stan'd 29^ 
" 300 29y 2 

Prescott, blue D 30 
Royal stan'd bro. 29 
250X 30 
bleach'd28 
Stark HD brown 27 
Stark A imprv'd 30 
" A, bleached 28 
Suffolk, stan'd D 30 



1.97 

2.60 
2.71 
2.10 
1.70 

2.05 
3.79 
3.01 

2.15 

2.40 



YARDS 

TO 
POUND 

3.28 
3.36 

2.89 
2.96 
3.25 
2.72 
2.49 
3.11 
2.42 



7 Qti > 



76x56 
84x60 
84x52 
72x52 
56x56 
72x76 
60x68 
76x40 
36x96 



COUNTS 

TO 

INCH 

80x48 

80x48 



72x68 
64x68 
68x56 
76x48 
66x52 

76x52 



174 



WIDTHS, WEIGHTS AND PICKS 
COTTON CHEVIOTS. 



WIDTH YARDS COUNTS 
IN TO TO 

INCHES. POUND. INCH 



Amoskeag- stripes 27y 2 ' 


3.55 


checks 21 y 2 


3.32 


Alabama stripes 26 


4.51 


Algeron plaids 27 


4.36 


Crown A stripes 26 


4.89 


plaids 28 


4.16 


Conestog-a stripes 28 


2.69 


Falmouth ch'ks bb 27 


4.52 


Forrest Hill 28 


4.18 


Great Republic 2S x / 2 


4.26 



48x33 



36x40 



WIDTH YARDS COUNTS 
III TO TO 

incHES pounD mcH 



Iadna Mills 


26 


4.84 


Philadelphia 


26 


4.51 


Pioneer plaids 


28 


4.36 


Prodigy stripes 


29 y 2 


3.85 


Rosedale 


27 


5.42 


Slater 


27 


3.42 


Sanrta Rosa 


21% 


4.45 


Real Caledonia jck28 


4.30 


Uncasville 


27 


2.37 


Uncasville 


27 


2.37 



40x44 



DOMESTIC GINGHAMS. 



WIDTH YARDS COUNTS 
NAME IN TO TO 

INCHES POUND INCH 

Amoskeag- Mfg- Co 26}^ 6.40 72x76 

Staples 26^ 5.60 68x76 

fey stpls26>^ 5.56 

Canton 26 6.92 56x60 

" chks 26^6.40 

Chin clth 26 7.64 

Persian 26^ 6.60 



WIDTH YARDS COUNTS 

IN TO TO 

INCHES POUND INCH 



48x72 
48x56 
60x76 
36x40 



Zanzibar 25^ 5.58 
Arasapha Mfg- Co 29 6.44 
Bay State 25^ 8.34 

Caledonia 26^ 6.68 48x56 
Elberon Seersucker 25^ 6. 78 40x56 

Everett Classics 26 5.68 50x70 

Franklin Suiting-s 26>< 6.89 44x70 

Glenarie 25*^ 6.40 40x48 

Gotham 26^ 5.91 44x56 



Johnson Mfg- Co 26 
" Pin Checks 26 
" Plaid " 26 
Loraine Knotted 29 
Manchester 27 

Monogram 26-Hs 

Nevelle Seersucker 26 
Parkhill Mfg-. Co. Toil 
Nord. 25^ 

Pontiac Seersucker 25 
Randelman 
Renfrew, Dress 26 

" Novelties 
Tacoma Cloth 25^ 

Woodboro Mfg- Co 27 
York Mfg Co stpls27 



6.50 
6.50 
5.90 
5.40 
6.00 
6.50 

Du 
6.70 

7.58 



6.34 
5.86 
7.30 
7.08 
5.33 



56x68 
<< 

64x64 
76x80 
44x50 
48x56 
52x68 

60x70 
40x56 
40x44 
60x60 
.52x56 
48x56 

52x56 



BROWN COTTON FLANNELS. 



Name 

Ellerton HHH 
WH 
H 

WN 
N 

" O 
P 

" Q 



WIDTH YARDS COUNTS 

IN TO TO 

INCHES POUND INCH 



35* 

35 

31 

35 
32 

28* 
27* 
28 



1.44 
1.78 
1 95 
2.08 
5.15 
2.58 
2.84 
:'.91 



avidth yards counts 
Name in to to 

inches pound inch 



Ellerton R 


28 


3.10 


t. 


S 


28 


3.37 


bb 


T 


28 


3.46 


bb 


V 


274 


3 98 


" 


CL 


30* 


4.33 


tb 


CM 


28 


4.80 


bb 


CN 


27 


7.10 


Glondal 


eNN 


26 


4.88 



WIDTHS, WEIGHTS AND PICKS 
BROWN COTTON FLANNELS.— Continued 



175 







WIDTH YARDS COUNTS 








WIDTH YARDS COUNTS 


Name 




IN 


TO 


TO 






Name 


IN 


TO 


TO 




INCHES POUND 


INCH 








INCHES POUND 


INCH 


Buckskin BR 




26 


5.00 






" 


T 


ii 


3.34 




Good Luck 4 




57* 


4.74 


84x48 




n 


A 


" 


3.00 




5 






5.67 






11 


Y 


29i 


2.70 




6 




28 


2.90 


' 




ii 


Z 


28* 


2.70 




14 




28* 


3.49 


7Hx52 




,! 


X 


31 


2.50 




18 




29* 


2.58 


76x48 




15 


XX 


30* 


2.30 




24 




"'7 


2.46 






" 


XXX 


321 


2.00 




30 






3.43 






" 


XXXX 


36 


ii 




Massachuetts B 


28 


4.00 






11 


F 


27 


5.00 




BoyalSt'nd'rdNo.3 


28 


4.86 


80x56 




n 


U 


26f 


4.50 






i 


" 5 


" 


4.63 






•n 


L 


ii 


4.00 








" 30 


l ' 


3.99 


84x56 




ii 


B 


" 


3,75 






1 


" 20 


a 


3.41 


84x64 




" 


N 


28 


3.40 






i 


" 30 


'• 


3.34 


37x48 




" 


O 


•■i 


3.00 


28x48 




t 


" 40 


Li 


3.67 


84x48 




" 


E 


59 


2.75 






' 


*' 45 


" 


2.83 






" 


Z 


ii 


3.60 






t 


" 45 


u 


3.34 


ii 




" 


W 


ii 


2.35 








" 50 


11 


2.70 


tt 




" 


V 


ii 


2.30 






t 


" 90 35* 


1.79 


64x44 




,r| 


G 


301 


2.00 




tt 


"100 


36 


1.46 


" 




" 


BX 


31 1 


1-75 




Tremont M 




28 


5.30 






ii 


B 


31* 


1.60 




DL 




" 


6.00 






ii 


G-GG 


36 


1.50 




D 




" 


4.60 




Saco colored plus 


h 30 


2.73 


52x92 


H 




u 


4.00 




Syr 


acnsc colrd plusb 28 


3.64 


24x72 


ft 


P 




11 


3.60 

















BLEACHED COT' 



NELS. 



Name. 

Ellerton HHH 
WH 

WN 
N 
O 
P 

s 



WIDTH YARDS COU' 

IN TO 

INCHES POUND 



'H YARDS COUNTS 
TO TO 

t tnd Inch 



32 
32 
32 

20 

284- 
28' 
26 
28- 1 



1.64 
2.30 
2.° 



CO' 



Na- 
NewY 

War 

Y( 



176 



WIDTHS. WEIGHTS AND PICKS 



DENIMS. 



width yards cod nts 
Name in to to 

inches roixn IN'DII 

Amoskeag MfgCo. Brown 

D, 9 oz 27i@28 1.67 

•• " •• 27i@28 '1.69 

" bluel) 27f(a>28 2.20 

•• "9oz27£@28 2.24 

ColumbianXXXbrn 27±(o>28 2.98 

11 h'vy mVd f'cy 27i(a)28 2.94 

" XXX blue fancy mixed 

27i@28 2.98 

Everett blue. DD 28 2.55 

11 imp'd brown BD28i@28f 2.48 

" " " '■« 28(a»28i 2.4:. 

slate SD 28 2.45 

•• imy'dblueDDN28 2.45 

fancy stripes 28 2.45 

" " .- checks 28 2.45 

Oakland Mis- A brown 56* 3.78 

Otis DD 26i 3. 25 

Palmer Mills f'cy 418 27£(a>28 2.58 

Pearl River BD brown 28 



N A M E 



48x48 
40x48 
48x84 
40x72 



28x36 



36x68 
36x64 
48x84 
28x44 



WIDTH YARDS COUNTS 

IN TO T( > 

INCHES roi'ND INCH 



Saco' River slate D 28 2.76 

blue, DD 28 2.7s 

Shetuck Co. blue 28 1.84 

Uncasville 2s 2.71 

Warren Cotton Mills 941 28 2.79 

Whittenton A A 281 3.25 

York, blue. DD 28 2.45 

•' brown, DDXX 28 2.45 

" slate, DDA 28 2.45 

" fancy strips 25 2.45 

fancy plads' 28 2.45 



SATTEENS. 



48x52 
40x44 
35x72 
27x46 



Amory Sillesia Jean 
Dale River Twills 
Naumkeag Twills 



4.25 

4.84 114x112 

2.521 






0** 









\r> 



* ft. <, V. 



INTERESTING FACTS 177 



INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT DRY GOODS. 



A Pound of Cotton. 

Various estimates are given regarding - the cost of raising a pound of 
cotton. These vary from 5@ 6 c, 7@7j4 c. to 8 @ 10 c. per pound, and 
in nearly every instance are based on the major portion of the supplies 
being bought elsewhere and not raised on the plantation. When sup- 
plies are produced on the farm, with cotton under good management, 
the cost of raising it will not exceed 6 cents per pound. A manufactur- 
ing- concern some years ago produced the finest, that is, the thinnest, 
cotton yarn ever seen — 700s— of which muslin was made. The same 
firm has produced since, yarn of 2150, which is much finer than that of 
the famous Dacca muslin. A pound of the finest Sea Island cotton spun 
of this fineness would be 1000 miles in length. Some idea of the tenu- 
ity of cotton fibres may be formed when it is remembered that 14,000 to 
20,000 individual filaments of American cotton onty weigh one grain, so 
that there are about 140,000,000 to every pound, and each hair weighs 
only abont the 1-17000 part of a grain, and if the separate fibres were 
placed end to end in a straight line, one pound would reach 2200 miles. 

Twines and Strings. 

There are about $8,000,000 worth of flax and hemp strings made in 
this country every year, not the big sorts, such as lines, ropes, cables 
and hawsers, but just such strings as are lumped together under the 
broad name of twines. Besides these, there are large quantities of cot- 
ton strings made, and here and there still a few paper ones, though the 
latter — invented when cotton was high priced in the North during- the 
war, and then quite common — are now seldom seen. There are but 8 
twine factories in the United States: 2 in New Jersey, 3 in northern 
New York, 2 in Massachusetts and 1 (the largest) in New York city. 
The latter employs 800 hands, and turns out 14,000 pounds per day of 
finished twines and shoe tread, ranging in value from 14 cents to $1.50 
per pound. In addition to these eig-ht factories, there are scattered 
through the Eastern states a few small establishments, but there are 
none, large or small, in the West or South. 



178 INTERESTING FACTS 

Angora Cashmere. 

This name is employed by the trade to denote a certain kind of cloth 
made in imitation of Camel's-hair cloth, which is said to be made of 
the long", white hair of the Ang-ora goat of Asiatic Turkey, which rivals 
that of Cashmere. Angora Cloth is twilled like Cashmere, is of a lig-ht 
quality and the widths run 27, 48 and 54 inches. 

Hindoo Silks. 

Mysore silks are fine, soft, undressed silk stuffs, both plain and print- 
ed, d} 7 ed and undyed. They may be had in all colors, of a Hindoo char- 
acter, the designs being- chiefly a close running all-over of floral ones, 
although some printed in gold or silver area little bolder in pattern, and 
others are printed black and in the natural color of silk. Nagpore silks 
are all soft, slight and undressed, and are to be had in ever}' variety of 
essentially Hindoo colors. In fact, they belong- to that class of Hindoo 
silk very properly called the "cultivated." 

Ancient Tapestries. 

The collection of tapestries in the Royal Palace of Spain is composed 
of more than 600 pieces, and is considered the richest in existence, es- 
pecially for its fine Flemish tapestries of the 15th and 16th centuries. 
It has only been known to the artistic world of late years. Among- the 
most beautiful are the history of the Virgin; the history of John the 
Baptist, the Apocalypse; the Battle of the Vices and Virtues; and be- 
longing to a more modern period a hanging- representing the victories 
of the Emperor Charles V, at Tunis; the Loves of Vertumnus and Po- 
mona; the Labors of Hercules; the Spheres, etc. [See Tapestry.] 

Metal Buttons. 

Gilt buttons are made of a mixture of copper, with a small portion of 

zinc or brass mixed with copper, common brass being unfit for gilding. 

The buttons are cut out of larg-e wide sheets of this metal, and the 

shanks are affixed by solder. The gilding is performed by means of an 

amalgam of quicksilver and gold. Brass Buttons are simply stamped 

out of sheet brass, and the ornaments are struck by a die. Plated 

Buttons are made out of copper, plated with silver, and are chiefly 

used in liveries and uniforms. The figures or devices upon them are 

formed by stamping with dies. The commonest kind of metal buttons 

are those which are stamped in pewter, and chiefly used in the trim- 

r military jackets. They are very soft, but not being intended 

- 1 - +o exhibit the number of the regiment, or 

"*"" n1 oth. they answer the 



ABOUT DRY GOODS 179 

The Origin of Various Manufactures. 

According- to Melik Cassam Mirza, of Tebriz, Persia, the manufacture 
of silk was first practiced in China, in the province of Kiang Nau, about 
the year of the world 1743, or 2257 years B. C. From other authentic 
sources we learn that cotton had its origin in India, and that shawls 
and carpets were first made in Persia. 

Barcelona Silk Kerchiefs. 

Barcelona silk kerchiefs are named from Barcelona, in Spain, from 
whence they were originally brought, though now all made in England; 
they are of four kinds; black, of plain colors, Turban checks and fancy. 
The black are more for use than for show, and measure from twent}*-six 
inches square to seven-quarters. The Turban checks were originally 
made for head-dresses, and are about twenty inches square. 

Materials Used In "Woolen" Manufacture. 

The fibers used in woolen and worsted manufacture are divisible into 
three great great classes: "First, the animal class of which wool, silk, 
alpaca and mohair are standard representatives; second, the vegetable 
class, in which cotton is the principle, Jute and China grass having on- 
ly been applied to the woolen industries, to a very limited degree; while 
flax and hemp, as yet, have found no place in wool fabrics, being used 
mainly in the production of carpets and bagging; and third, the artifir 
cial or re-manufactured class, which includes noils, mungo, shoddy, ex- 
tract and flocks. The latter class, however, forms a prominent factor in 
the manufacture of so-called woolen and worsted fabrics." 

Cotton in the South. 

It is predicted that should the rate of cotton production. in the South 
from 1879 to 1889 be kept up until 1898, we shall see a production of 
95,607,000 bales in ten years, worth at an average of $50 per bale, 
$4,755,350,00, or a yearly income to the Soutn of $477,500,000. The 
plain facts point to this as certainly as we live and our country is kept 
at peace with itself. It is estimated that the cotton crop of the South 
for the year 1889 was worth anywhere from $325,000,000 to $350,000,000, 
while the 7,000,0000 bales produced in 1890 are valued at $380,000,000. 
Besides this, in Southern states there will be manufactured into goods 
in the ten years some 8,000,000 bales of cotton, which means $125 to the 
bale put in goods, or a thousand millions in cotton goods in the period, 
or a hundred millions a year. New and improved methods of cultivation, 
better farm implements and tools, greater economy in farm work, 
coupled with an ever increasing demand for cotton fabrics, are all tend- 
ing to the fulfillment of this prediction. 



180 INTERESTING FACTS 

Smyrna Rugs. 
It is perhaps not generally known that the bulk of so-called Smyrna 
carpets (which, however, are manufactured at Smyrna in small quanti- 
ties only ) come to England and America. Within the past few years 
the demand in the United States has greatly increased for this class of 
floor covering-. The seat of the manufacture is in the remoter part of 
Asia Minor, and Smyrna serves as the medium of transport only. The 
goods are shipped to this point by the native weavers, where they meet 
with English and American purchasers. The favorite kinds, which 
are thick and warm, come from Ushak, Giordes, Kula, Demirdschik, 
Melas, Ladik, Pergamos and Sparta; Ushak. with 20. (too inhabitants, 
being the chief seat of the industry. Kula and Giordes have about 
15,000 inhabitants each, whereas in the towns, with the exception of 
Pergamos and Ladik, the manufacture is of more recent introduction, 
and has not reached the same extent. The thickest and most valuable 
carpets come from Ushak; the poorest sort are the "Barbadoes,* 1 in 
which the colors cannot be guaranteed. The finest quality of all is 
known to dealers by the name of "Tek Iplik Carpets," which are ex- 
tremely beautiful both as regards their texture and designs. Vegetable 
d} r es are used for the most part. Now and then of late 3-ears, the trade 
has been surprised to learn that the colors in some of these Smyrnd rugs 
were not fast, especially as these Oriental fabrics had from time im- 
memorial been regarded as models of the weaver's handicraft and the 
dyer's skill. It has been stated that the deterioration of color in these 
rugs and carpets is due to recent inroads of French and German dye- 
•makers, and the use of their analine dyes, which are conceded on all 
sides to be vastly inferior to the vegetable dye-matters. The following 
are the market values of the most important varieties of Smyrna rugs: 
Ispahan from $25 to $200; Sane $50(^180; Bokhara SI 4(a 45; Ladik $40 
(^85; Yeordis $75(«25<>; Mecca $25("85; Shiraz S30(f< 120: Teheran $60@ 
$300; Coniah $30@75; Soumak $25@75; Kazark S22(« 75; Melas $5@50;' 
Tiflis $10(a)4Q; Daghestan $8@65; Afghan $20(^1 10; Anatolian $8@55. 
In size these range from two-foot square, to the size of an ordinar}- 
sitting room; in weight from rive to one hundred and fifty pounds. So 
close and thick are they woven as to be absolutely impervious to both air 
and water. If the genuine veg-etable dyes are used the colors grow 
softer and more beautiful with age. As reg'ards the wearing- qualities, 
like all hand-woven fabrics, they are far superior to the power-loom 
product, and it may truly be said that Smyrna rugs will outlast any 
and all other varieties of woven fabric in the world. 

"Spick, Span New." 
This phrase was first applied to the cloth just taken off the upannaus 
(stretchers ) and spikes ( hooks. | 



ABOUT DRY GOODS 181 

Cotton in India and the United States. 

The writers of the Middle Ages, in describing - the progress of com- 
merce, or the spoil of captured cities, or of the garments of both sexes, 
continually mention stuffs of woolen, linen, silk and gold in all their 
varities, but do not speak of cotton. The reason that cotton was un- 
known to Europe at this time was on account of their non-intercourse 
with the people of India. Since the fifth century before Christ India 
throughout her wide domain has clothed herself exclusively in cotton. 
She possesses the soil, the climate and all the requisite elements from 
nature for the production of cotton to an almost boundless extent, suf- 
ficient in fact to supply the entire world with the raw product. This 
was not known in Europe until comparatively recent times — the } 7 ear 
1641. ' Since that time England especially has interested herself in the 
development of India's cotton industry. In 1890 there 107 cotton mills 
at work in India, containing- 20,000 looms and 2,500,000 spindles, em- 
ploying 85,000 operatives. Of these 42,415 were men 17,000 women, 
15,000 young persons and 9,000 children. Of these mills 50 are in the 
town and on the island of Bombay. Cotton manufacturing in India is 
what may be termed an infant industry, although owing to the cheap- 
ness of labor in the country, and to her close proximity to the great 
markets of the East, and the fostering care of Great Britain, India may 
in the the near future become a very formidable competitor with the 
Uuited States in the production of cotton fabrics. 

Loss of Length in Twisting Cotton Yarn. 

Yarn must always lose a little length in twisting, the loss being pro- 
portionate to the thickness of the yarn, and the hardness of the twist. 
If two bobbins of the same counts are twisted together, the count will, 
of course, become half of what it was before, just as the weight will be 
double. In bleaching, cotton also loses a portion of its weight, because 
the bleaching process is, in all cases, subtractive. It loses much resin- 
ous and coloring matter, often amounting from 10 to 12 per cent. But 
in dyeing etc, on the contrary, it acquires a portion of the drugs used, 
because this process is additive; and as much as 10 to 15 per cent may 
be added to the weight of the raw yarn, by its passag-e through the 
various coloring processes. 

Sizing of Cotton. 

Cotton is never woven in its natural state. It always receives a dress- 
ing or coating of some kind of liquid "size," which is allowed to dry on 
the yarn before the weaving begins. The object is to diminish the 
roughness on the surface of the threads, and to increase their tension 
power, thereby facilitating the weaving. 



182 INTERESTING FACTS 

Yarns Under the Microscope. 

If 3'ou take a cotton 3-arn, say No. 40, and examine it under a micro- 
scope, you will find that it resembles a solid cane, with a slightly undu- 
lated surface, and here and there a few straggling filaments on its sur- 
face. A "woolen" yarn, of the same size, viewed in a similar manner, 
resembles one continuous mesh of entangled fibres, tightly clustered 
together, especially in the heart of th3 thread. A "worsted" }'arn of 
the same size, submitted to a like test appears comparatively more 
regular in constrnction than the "woolen," the multiplicity of the fibres 
not being - so large nor so completely twined around each other. In the 
silk yarn, the individual fibres are so firmly g-rouped together that it 
scarcely seems to be composed of a material of a fibrous character. 

The textile fibers, cotton, wool, silk, flax and hemp differ considerably 
from each other in their structure. The first three consist of definite 
and entire filaments not divisible without decomposition; the last two 
consist of fibrils bundled together in parallel directions which are easier 
separated into much more minute filaments. These bundles are bound 
together by parenchymatous ring's, from which they are freed by oper- 
ations of hecking, spinning and bleaching-. The downy filaments are 
cylindered tubes, growing in that state, but get more or less flattened in 
the maturation and dying of the wool. They are shut off at both ends, and 
their flattened diameters vary from 1-500 to 1-1000 of an inch, accord- 
ing to the quality. The filaments of wool, when seen through a powerful 
microscope, have somewhat the appearance of a shale, with the edges 
of its scales turned out a little from the surface so as to make the pro- 
file line of the sides like a fine saw, with the teeth sloping in the direc- 
tion from the roots to the point. Each fibre of wool seems to consist of 
serrated rings imbricated over each other like joints. The teeth differ 
in size and prominence in different wools, as well as the annular spaces 
between them, the latter being in general from 1-2000 to 1-3000 of an 
inch, while the diameter of a filament itself may vary from 1-1000 to 
1-1400. The cocoon-silk threads are twin tubes laid parallel in the act 
of spinning and glued with more or less uniformity together by the varn- 
ish which covers their whole surface. Each filament of this thread varies 
in diameter from 1-800 to 1-2500 of an inch, the average breadth being 
1-1000. but it is variable in different silks. 

Ingrain. 

Ingrain is a term used in connection with textiles dyed before being 
woven. The advantage of such textiles is that they can be washed with- 
out thereby discharging- their colors. The cotton cloth called Turkey 
red and the red marking cotton are what is called ingrain. There are 
also double and treble ply ingrain carpets. 



ABOUT DRY GOODS 183 



Twine or Twist of Yarns. 



All the yarns used for weaving- purposes, whether made on woolen, 
worsted or cotton systems, providing - the material employed in their 
manufacture is of of a fibrous character, and has to be submitted to 
the process of spinning before it assumes the form of a weavable thread 
— may be divided into two great classes, namely, openband. and crossband 
twists. The origm of this classification obtains in the twisting process. 
There are, as a simple experiment will show, two distinct methods of 
imparting twist to the attenuated sliver (long ribbon) of the condenser, 
or roving, of the roving machine. Suppose, for example, a number of 
wool fabrics, which had previously been reduced into a compact, thread- 
like condition, were about to be twisted together by hand; in order to 
accomplish this, one end of the thick fibrous threads might be held in a 
fixed position between the forefinger and thumb of the left hand, while 
the right could be engaged in imparting twist among the fibres, caus- 
ing them to twine around each other from left to right, and forming, in 
so doing, what would be an openband thread. 

To produce the opposite kind of twine or twist, called crossband, it 
would only be necessary to reverse the motion of the right hand, and 
thus cause the fibres during the imparting of twist into the sliver to 
revolve from right to left. In making this or similar experiment, the 
left hand corresponds to the wooden frame, which was, in Hargreaves' 
machine, substituted for the hands of the spinner, or to the giving-off 
rollers of the spinning frame in present use; for these grip the thick 
thread, while the spindles give the necessar}- twine the direction in which 
the latter revolve, like the motions of the right hand, determining the 
character of the twist of the spun thread. 

Jute Manufacture. 

Jute is the long, silky fibre of Corchorus capsularis and other annual 
species of the same genus, belonging to the order Tiliaceoe, natives of 
Asia. It has come recently very largely into use for woven goods and is 
the object of an immense trade. The jute plant comes chiefly from In- 
dia where it grows rapidly, and calls for very little care in cultivation. 
The Hindqps make their gunny bags of jute cloth. The jute manufac- 
ture, which was hardly known in Europe till about 1840, is now largely 
carried to both in England and this country. As jute is cheap, spins 
well and looks glossy when woven, it has come greatly into favor, some 
of the mills working up as much as 1,000 bales of it every week. The 
main use of it is for sacking and bagging; other uses are for sheeting, 
mattings, ducks and carpeting and in combination with the more expen- 
fibres of cotton, wool, flax and cocoanut. Jute does not stand exposure 
to the weather, and hence is not suited for the manufacture of cordage. 



184 INTERESTING FACTS 

How to Judge the Quality of Wool on a Sheep's Back. 

The simplest method of judging of the quality of on a sheep's back. 
Take a lock from the sheep's back and place it upon an inch rule; if you 
can count from thirty to thirty-three of the spirals or folds in the space 
of an inch it equals in quality the finest Saxony wool grown. Of course, 
as the number of spirals to the inch diminishes, the quality of wool be- 
comes relatively inferior. Cotswold wool, and some othfer inferior wools, 
do not measure more than nine spirals to the inch." 

Furs for Hats. 

The various materials most used in hat making, are the furs of the 
beaver, the otter, the rabbit, the hare, a species of muskrat. a species of 
the monkey, a species of the seal and a few others, together with Sax- 
ony and Spanish wools, and the hair of camels ane goats. Numeotis as 
are these varioss names, most of the animals produce five or six differ- 
ent qualities of stuff, from particular parts of the same skin, which vary 
greatly in price or value. 

Looped Cord Fabrics. 

The new fabrics made from spiral woven or looped cord, and which 
are now being offered to the trade are worthy the attention and consid- 
eration of those who are ever on the lookout for novelties in manufac- 
tured articles. The spiral or looped cord refered to. in its structure 
somewhat resembles chenille, the only difference being that the loops, 
which give the cord its peculiar rich and pleasing appearance are tied 
to a straight cord of cotton or worsted yarn in a manner which makes 
them immovable and lasting. 

The looped cords can be made of any size desired, from >s to yi inch 
in diameter, and of an}' solid color or mixture of color or material desired, 
such os silk, worsted, linen, cotton, etc., also for fringes for any porpose. 

As a 'material for blankets, bedcovers, carriage and lap robes, steamer 
blankets and robes, shawls, etc., it is especially desirable and hand- 
some. The loops of the ornamental cord, projecting as they do from 
the sides of the core yarn — to which they are tied — form, in the process 
of makimg, a plush -like texture when woven into fabric-. 

The fabrics produced by this process are rich m appearanc, soft, plia- 
ble, light in weight, yet warm, healthy and agreeable. • 

The product, when made with single looped cord, is alike in appear- 
ance on both sides, but if made with do-.-Vp ;ord the two sides can be, if 
desired, of different colors. The goods produced by this new process 
are reasonable in cost, and we predict, when generally known and 
shown to the trade, will at once become one of the most popular fabrics 
of the dav. 



ABOUT DRY GOODS 185 

Madapolams. 

Madapolatns are a coarse description of calico cloths, of stiff heavy 
make, originally of Hindoo manufacture, where they were employed for 
quilts. They are now made in England, dressed and undressed, and are 
used for underclothing-. The cloth mersures 29 to 33 inches in width, 
or in double width it is from 1}& to 33 inches. The latter varieties are 
much employed for curtains, quilts, aprons, etc. 

Hand Labor and Machinery. 

The weaving industry of the United States offers perhaps as striking 
an illustration as any of the actual displacement of hand labor by ma- 
chinery. With a hand-loom, a weaver used to weave from 60 to 80 picks 
per minute in weaving- muslin of good quality, with twenty threads of 
warp to each one-quarter square inch. A power loom now weaves 180 
picks per minute of the same kind of cloth. Even in power machinery 
a weaver formerly tended but one loom. Now, one weaver minds all 
the way from four to ten power looms, according to the grade of goods- 
Construction of Stockinette Cloth. 

Strictly speaking, stockinette is not a cloth; for it is not a woven fabric, 
but a knitted texture. B} r a process of knitting and not by weaving, the 
individual threads of which a stockinette fabric is composed, are inter- 
laced into one regular texture. The work is performed in a kind of a 
frame or loom, in which the yarns are arranged in parallel order, at un- 
iform distance apart, as in ordinary weaving. Of course, the machine 
is automatic in its movements and capable of producing a great lengtt 
of cloth in a very short time. The fabric thus formed is ornamented 
with a fine ribbed pattern, similar in character to that seen in common 
knit goods. This article generally handles soft, full and elastic, but 
lacks those valuable characterstics of strength and firmness of texture 
or make, which obtain in a woven cloth proper. The difference between 
the structure of this fabric and that resulting from weaving warp and 
weft yarns together may be illustrated as follows: Take a sample of 
stockinette cloth and try to withdraw a thread and what is the result? 
The whole canstruction is unraveled. Next submit a loom product to a 
similar examination and it will be found .that if a longitudinal or warp 
thread is removed the transverse or weft-threads will remain, while on 
the other hand if the latter are withdrawn the warp threads will, al- 
though the texture may be partly destroyed, still remain, to a certain 
extent, undisturbed. Again, the manner in which a knitted fabric is 
constructed limits the designer to one class of weave effects — these being 
of a stockinette character — whereas the principles of such weaving are 
of such a discription as to admit of unlimited variation in design. 



.186 INTERESTING FACTS 

Muslin Mills. 

The following - number of mills are engaged directly and indirectly in 
the production of brown, bleached and colored cottons, print cloths and 
•prints in the United States: 

Mills making brown, bleached and colored cottons 150 

Mills making brown and bleached cottons 125 

Mills making colored cottons 250 

Mills making print cloth • 70 

Mills making prints 15 

The above if added together would make 610 establishments, but the 
number is not so large as that, for the reason that many mills make in 
varying quantity all the different classes of cottons described, while 
■others are devoted exclusively to specific manufactures, such as brown 
• and bleached sheetings and shirtings, or brown and colored cottons, or 
print cloths, or prints alone, and are necessarily contained within each 
respective classification. However, the above figures show one thing, 
that all of the various "regular" and '' standard " tickets, as well as 
••fancy" brands of brown, bleached and colored woven cottons made in 
this countr}-, are produced by these factories, and also that the names 
of the same have been so multiplied in number and variety within the 
past few } T ears, that they now extend well into the thousands in number. 
While diversification of quality and style of our domestic cotton fabrics 
is steadily and rapidly enlarging, it is a question whether they will 
keep pace in this direction with the increase in the variety of the fancy 
names given to them. As an illustration, one make of brown, bleached 
or colored cottons that has a standard reputation will not only be made 
and branded with its own original and regular ticket, but to satisfy the 
caprice or necessities of the trade in various parts of the country, will 
have probably a dozen different fancy names that bear no relation what 
ever to either the original brand or the name of the factory making it. 
This is due to +he keen and close competition on the part of both the 
jobbing and the retail trades, which reduces sometimes the profits of 
both to such a low ebb, that the}- cannot afford to carry the goods un- 
less they have some protection in the way of fancy tickets that are not 
strictly competitive so far as the brand is concerned. 

Satin Sheeting. 

Satin sheeting is one of the "waste silk" materials, of satin make on 
the face and twilled cotton at the back, the chief substance of the ma- 
terial being cotton. It is made in different degrees of fineness, runs 54 
inches in width, and is employed for upholstery, embroidery purposes, 
etc. Satin sheeting is thicker in substance, coarser in the weaving, and 
less glossy than the ordinary cotton backed satin. 



ABOUT DRY GOODS 1^77 

Cost of Weaving. 

While the cost of labor was higher in 1890 than in I860,, yet the ex-- 
pense of weaving- has been reduced by the greater productive power of 
the machinery. The weaving of print-cloth 28 inches wide and 7 yards 
to the pound, is now less than 1 cent per yard. The cost of weaving- 
muslins and sheetings 30 to 36 inchens wide and weighing 3 to 4 yards, 
to the pound is from 1*4 to 2 cents per yard. The cost of weaving the 
heavy muslin 36 inches wideband the heavy drill 30 inches wide, each: 
weighing from 2% to 3 yards to the pound is about 1% cents per yard.. 
To weave the finest sheetings and muslins the cost is 2 to 3 cts per yard... 
This is the cost of mill labor inweaving these fabrics, including salaries 
wages or earnings of every one employed, but does not include the cost 
of the raw material, nor the processes of bleaching, printing or dyeings 

Origin and Meaning of Hose. 

Hose was originally a garment covering the legs and the waist, worn: 
by men. The hose of the Middle Ages generally covered tne persom 
from the waist to the toes. They were secured to the upper garment by 
points or some similar device. At times the covering of one leg and side 
of the body was of different material and color from the other side. In 
the 16th century the leg coverings were divided into two parts, and the 
word hose was applied rather to the breeches, the covering of the lower 
part of the leg and foot being called the stocking or nether-stock.. 
Hose in its present use, either singular or plural, denotes a covering for 
the feet and lower part of the legs, i. e., stockings. Short stockings; 
not reaching to the knee are distinctively called half hose, or socks, or 
very rarely ankle hose. 

Eli Whitney. 

Eli Whitney, the inventer of the cotton gin, died on Jan. 8, 1825, and' 
was buried in the cemetery of New Haven, Conn. His tomb is after the- 
model of Scipio's at Rome. It is simple and beautiful, and promises to* 
endure for years. It bears the following inscription: 

ELI WHITNEY, 

The inventor of the cotton gin. 

Of useful science and arts, the efficient patron 

and improver. 

in the social relations of life, a model of excellence. 

While private affection weeps at his tomb, his country 

honors his memory. 

Born December 8th, 1765. -died Janurary 8th, 1825. 



188 INTERESTING FACTS 

Turkey-red Dying Long A Secret. 

The Levantines held for a long- period the secret of the Turkey red 
process of dyeing, and had a monopoly of the trade in red-dyed cottons. 
When Felix visited Greece in the latter part of the 18th century, he 
found the principal Turkey-red dye works in Thessaly: others were 
spread on the flanks of the mountains of Ossa and Pelion. The waters 
of the Vale of Tempe were very suitable for d}-eing, and there existed 
numerous small works, the principal of which were those of Ambelakia. 
Operatives from Sm}'rna, Salonica and Adrianople, first introduced the 
process into France, and up to the end of the last century they were 
at the head of the French dye works of the interior; but it was naturally 
difficult for a handful of foreigners to preserve their secrets for a length 
of time from the workmen employed, and in course of ten years from 
their introduction their methods of working were no longer dependent 
upon them. 

Floss Silk. 

Floss silk is the name given to the portions of ravelled silk broken off 
in the filature of the cocoons, which is carded like cotton or wool, and 
spun into a soft coarse yarn or thread, for making bands, shawls, socks 
and other common silk fabrics. The floss, or fleuret, as first obtained, 
must be steeped in water, and then subjected to pressure, in order to ex- 
tract the gummy matter, which renders it too short for the spinning 
wheel. After being dried it is made still more pliant by working a little 
oil into it with the hands. It is now read} r to be submitted to the card- 
ing-engine. It is spun upon the flax-wheel. Pretty fine fabrics of this 
material are now produced in Italy, France and England. 



Rope. 

A good hemp rope is hard but pliant, yellowish or greenish gray in 
color, with a certain silvery or pearly lustre. A dark or blackish color 
indicates that the hemp has suffered from fermentation in the process of 
curing, and brown spots show that the rope was spun while the fibres 
were damp, and is consequently weak and soft in those places. To 
insure greater strength and more safety in ropes used for scaffolding 
purposes they should be dipped when free from wet, into a bath con- 
taining twenty grains of sulphate of copper per litre of water, and kept 
in this solution some four days, afterward being- dried. The rope will 
thus have absorbed a certain quantity of sulphate of copper, which will 
preserve them for some time both from the attacks animal parasites and 
from rot. 



ABOUT DRY GOODS 189 



Mixed Fabrics. 



Besides the various goods in cotton, flax, silk and wools, ingenuity is 
always at work in devising - combinations in two or more of them, and 
these conititute mixed fabrics. The technical names vestings, coatings, 
tweeds, linings, cravatings, plaids, tabinets, poplins, paramattas, cash- 
merettes, cassinets, challis, bareges, cashmers and shall-cloths are only 
a few among - those applied to mixed goods. It is almost like a sum in 
permutation to determine the number of ways in which a certain num- 
ber of materials may be combined; and the manufacturers are ever on 
the lookout. for new combinations. Besides the four well-known kinds 
of fibre above mentioned, there have been added three others to the list 
in recent times, alpaca and mohair for fine goods, and jute for coarse, 
insomuch that seven elements now enter into the permutation. Some- 
times the warp, sometimes the weft, sometimes a nap or pile at the sur- 
face, is the point most attended to; in some cases yarns are dyed before 
weaving, in others the cloth is printed after the weaving; in some the 
Jacquard loom is employed to giv^ a pattern to diversely colored threads. 

Price of Beaver Skins in Early Days. 

There was a time when beaver skins were bought from the natives by 
the Hudson's Bay Company, at the regular price of 14 skins for a gun, 
7 for a pistol, 2 for a shirt or one pair of stockings, 1 for a comb or 
twelve needles, etc., less than the* hundredth part of their real value, 
and all the other fur-bearing r skins belonging to that country were rated 
by that of the beaver. 

Spectacles. 

Salvini de 1'Aramate, a Florentine, invented spectacles about the 
close of the 12th century. He would have kept his secret to himself had 
it not been for Father Alexander de Spina, another subject of the same 
state, who, having found it out by his ingenuity, was too generous to 
withhold so useful a discovery from the world. 

Selling Price of Thread. 

The following table gives the range of sellings prices of spool cotton 
per dozen, for thirty years: 

Selling Price. 

1860 , 40 to$l 75 

1865.. 80 to 1 10 

1870 - 72 to 80 

1875 55 to 72 

1880 55 

1885 : 55 

1890. 45 



190 INTERESTING FACTS 

Glengarry Cap. 

Glengarry, so named from Glengarry, a valley of Inverness-shire r 
Scotland, is a Scotch cap of wool, either woven in one piece or made of 
cloth. It has erect sides, a hollow or crease at the top, and diminishes 
in height toward the back, where the band is slit or parted and fitted 
with a pair of short ribbons, which are usually crosed and permitted to 
hang down. 

Armure. 

Armure is a silk textile, plain, striped, ribbed or with a small design- 
Sometimes it is made of wool and silk. There is also Satin Armure and 
Armure Bosphore, this latter being a reversible material. The widths 
run from 22 to 24 inches. Armure is a French term applied to either silk 
or wool, signifying a small pattern. 

Drap Sanglier. 

This is a loosely made all wool French stuff, 44 inches wide. It is of 
a rather coarse grain, plainly woven, and has a good deal of nap or 
roughness on the face. It is more especially designed for the purpose 
of mourning, and is found to be lighter in wear as a spring or summer 
dress material than its appearance promises. 

Shoes of the Ancient Egyptians. 

The shoes of the ancient Egyptians were formed of matting, the bark 
of the papyrus, leather and other materials. Shoes were also used by 
the Greeks and Romans, though they generally wore sandals, which 
were merely soles tied on the feet with thongs. 

How the Turcomans make Felt. 

The Turcomans are said to dwell, even to this day, in huts covered 
with felt, which they make by treading with their feet the raw material 
of which it is made while it lies upon the ground, thus favoring the 
supposition that felting was invented prior to weaving. 

Common Gauze. 

Common gauze is a variety of woven texture much used for light pur- 
poses. It is formed by the warp being twisted somewhat like a rope 
during the operation of weaving, by which the cloth acquires resem- 
blence to lace. The texture of this gauze is always open, flimsy and 
transparent, but from the turning of the warp it possesses an uncommon 
degree of strength and tenacity in propotion to the quantity of materials 
which it contains. This quality, together with its transparency, fits it 
for ornamental purposes of various kinds, particularly for flower and 
figuring, either with the needle or in the loom. 



ABOUT DRY GOODS 191 

Washing and Cleansing Fabrics. 

To raise the crushed pile of plush or velvet, dampen on the wrong 
side with clean, cold water, then hold tight across the face of a hot iron, 
and rub up the crushed spot with a clean, stiff brush. The important 
thing in washing flannels is to have all the waters of the same temper- 
ature. If you begin with cold water, go through with cold; if with hot 
have all waters equally hot. They must not be allowed to freeze while 
drying, and it must be remembered that it is the potash and soda con- 
tained in the soap which tends to color the flannels yellow. [See 
Bleaching op Wool.] The shrinking may also be partiall due to this 
agency, but above all to the exposure of the flannel while wet to the ex- 
tremes of high and Ioav temperatures. To clean and smooth up a wet 
silk hat, first shake off the water, rub the way the nap lies with a clean 
linen cloth or silk handkerchief, and hang- some distance from the fire 
to dry; a few hours after, brush with a soft brush. 

Planting and Picking Cotton. 

The general method of planting cotton may be described as follnws: 
The seed is sown on ridges, surrounded with furrows, for the purpose 
of draining off the superfluous water. Sowing time extends from the 
beginning of March to the end of April, the early part of the latter 
month being considesed the most elig-ible, because of there being less 
danger to the young plants from the occurrence of frost — that fearful 
bane to the cotton planter. After the plants have attained moderate 
height they are thined out, so as to remove those that promes badly and 
to leave sufficent space between those that are vigerous; this space var- 
ies from ten to twenty inches. The soil is carefully weeded and the 
are still further thinned, if their luxuriant growth should require that 
process as the season advances. As the summer approaches, and when 
the frost has disappeared, the crop is liable to injur} r from heavy rains 
and the attacks of a caterpillar which feeds voraciously on the leaves of 
the plant. The blossom then appears, varying in color from yellow to 
red, and lastly brown. 

The season of cotton picking commences in the latter part of July and 
continues, with out intermission, to the Christmas holidaj-s. The work 
is not heavy, but becoms tedious from the sameness. Each hand is sup- 
plied with a basket and bag. The basket is left at the head of the cot- 
ton row; the bag Is suspended from the picker's neck by a strap, and is 
used to hold the cotton as it is taken from the boll. When the bag is 
full it is emptied into the basket, and this .routine is continued through- 
out the day. Each hand picks from 250 to 300 pounds of seed cotton 
each day; however, some negroes of extraordinary ability go be} r ond 
this amount. 



192 INTERESTING FACTS 

Flax in the United States and Europe. 

From the earliest period the inhabitants of Ireland were acquainted 
with the valuable qualities possessed by the fibre of the flax plant, and 
manufactured it for clothing - . By whom, however, or from what coun- 
try it was introduced, there exists no satisfactory record. The Irish 
name for flax is Lhin, which word is also applied to thread, while the 
term Anairt is used to express coarse linen cloth. One reason for the 
superiority of Irish linens over those of other countries is on account 
of the better bleaching- they receive there. It is a well known fact that 
the linens bleached along the banks of the river Dan are whiter and 
softer than the products of other countries. Whether this is due to 
some chemical contained in the water of this river or to the heavy dews 
which fall on its banks, is not known with certainty, however, the 
snowy whiteness which is imparted to linen cloth by the water of this 
stream and the heavy dews which nightly fall, is unexcelled by the 
waters used for bleaching purposes in other countries. Vast quantities 
of yellow linens are annually shipped into Ireland from France, Eng- 
land, Russia, Germany and Belgium to be bleached and returned. 

Flax men in Europe find a difference in the seed from Russia, Ger- 
many and America, and imported seed is usually better the second year. 
There are white, yellow and blue blossoming plants, and experiments 
have been made to prove which is the most desirable for the United 
States. There are reasons to suppose that the best American climate 
for flax is at least as far south as Virginia, Kentucky, Kansas, and Cal- 
ifornia, from the fact that Egypt was the earliest seat of the industry, 
as well as the fact that flax must have originated in a climate where 
the frosts did not kill the land. The best flax region in Europe runs 
across France and Belgium. Silesia has the reputation ol growing the 
very finest fibre at present. Russia produces the largest quantity of flax 
owing undoubtedly to the vastness of the conntry and the cheapness of 
labor engaged in gathering it. Ireland has for centuries been famous 
for her linen manufactures, but the extent of her territory is too small to 
raise all the flax required to supply the wants of her linen manufactures 
and consequently they are obliged to import large quantities from other 
countries. Flax being a very exhaustive crop, it is not grown to any 
extent in the South of Ireland, where the soil is richer. Some of the 
land there is ver} r dear, and farmers prefer to raise crops that may bring 
them larger returns, and yet not impoverish their lands so much as flax 
would. A deep rich loam or alluvial soil is the best adapted for flax 
culture. The proper soil should be secured by a surplus of manure ap- 
plied to a previous crop, say of potatoes, as fresh manures are injurious 
to it. Flax is sown broadcast on well prepared soil, at tne rate of from 
sixteen to thirty quarts when wauted for seed, and two bushels to the 
acre when cultivated for the fibre. 



ABOUT DRY GOODS 193 

Old and New Mills. 

The erection of a modern cotton mill or woolen factor} T is on a far 
more comprehensive scale than in the early days of manufacturing". 
The new factories, covering - large areas and constructed on the principle 
of good light, temperature and ventilation, are as widely different from 
the old style as the modern residence is from the homely cabin of the 
frontiersman. The old mills were almost wholly of a narrow type, 
while many of the textile establishments now erected var}- from 100 to 
125 feet in width, being necessary in many cases for the high stories 
characteristic of the present building age. Perhaps the most notable 
difference in the modern mill structure, is the unusual facilities for nat- 
ural light. Light from combustion is comparatively poor and costly. 
In many of the weaving departments of mills built years ago and poorly 
windowed, the constant use of gas or oil for lighting purposes so over- 
heats the air that the ordinary operator looses physical vigor. In a 
wide mill, with high stories, the windows must necessarily be large in 
order to secure good natural light, occupying at least 40 per cent of the 
side walls, and leaving but little width of the brick work between them. 
Added to the advantage obtained by high walls, mills nowadays are es- 
pecially designed with the purpose of securing good sanitary conditions, 
entire mills being heated by means of a fan, which sucks in fresh air 
that, passing through steam pipes, is blown through flues and distrib- 
uted in all parts of the building. This system from a health standpoint 
is far superior to the old methods. 

Art of Meshing Machine Lace. 

Felkin, in his "History of Machine Wrought Hosiery and Lace Man- 
ufacture," in speaking of the art of meshing machine lace, says: "This 
is a science of no small importance which has been investigated and in 
some considerable degree acquired by everyone who has made any im- 
portant advances in the manufacture of lace whether in the construction 
of machinery or its application and use in the production of almost end- 
less varieties of ground work and designs. It has been the study of lace 
patentees, from Morris in 1780, down to the present time. It consists 
in a careful examination and study of the different classes of pillow lace; 
ascertaining the number of threads used and their several courses in the 
formation of every kind of mesh; the number and order of twists, plaits, 
weavings and cr6sses, which are formed with each pair of threads; the 
fine-works, open-works, thick threads, points and pearls, which go to 
make up the texture of each class — Mechlin, Brussels, Alencon, Valen- 
ciennes, Lisle or Honeton. This information is necessary to be gained 
in order to be fully aware what is to be done by the machine, so that im- 
itations, more or less perfect of any of these, may be obtained from it." 



194 INTERESTING FACTS 

The First Patent for Silk-Twisting Engine Made in England. 

This patent was dated September ( ), 1718, and granted to Thomas 
Lombe. It sets forth that "Thomas Lombe, of Our City of London, 
merchant, has by his petition humbly presented unto us, shown and set 
forth that he has by long- studies, paines and travels at great expense 
found out and brought to perfection three sorts of engines never before 
made or used within this our Kingdom of Great Britian, one to wind the 
finest raw silk, another to spin and the other to twist the finest Italian 
raw silk into organzine in great perfection which was never before done 
in this our Kingdom, by which means many thousand families of our 
subjects may be constantly employed in Great Britian, be furnished with 
silks of all sorts of the manufacture of our subjects, and great quantities 
exported into foreig-n ports by being made as good and cheap as any 
foreign silk can be. r Therefore, His Majesty granted to Thomas 
Lombe, for the space of fourteen years, the exclusive rig-ht to operate 
such machinery and to manufacture silken fabric by means thereof. 

How to Show Goods. 

In 3'our first minute with a customer you give her an impression, not 
of yourself but of the house which is liable to determine whether she 
buys of you or not, and also whether she becomes a customer of the 
house or a talker against it. If you are indifferent she will detect it 
before you see her, and the lirst impression is made before you have ut- 
tered a word. At the outset you have to guess what grade of goods 
she wants, high priced or low priced. Guess low enough; if you do not 
guess low enough be quick to discover your error and right yourself in- 
stantly. It is impertinent to insist on showing goods not wanted; it is 
delicately polite to get to exactly what is wanted adroitly and on the 
slightest hint. Do not try to change a buyer's choice except to this ex- 
tent; always use your knowledge of goods to her advantage if she wa- 
vers or indicates a desire for your advice. What we want sold is the 
precise article which she wants to buy. The worst blunder you can 
make — the most offensive to her and injurous tous-is to intimate in sup- 
ercilios manner that we do not keep as low a grade of goods as she asks 
for. Show goods freely to all customers; be painstaking to match sarn- 
ies; be as serviceable as you can be to all, whether bm r ers or not. In 
speaking of goods use correct names; say what they are made of, if you 
have occasion; if you do not know and cannot find out, say so. Sell 
nothing- on a misunderstanding if you know it exists; make no promises 
that you have any doubt about the fulfillment of; and having made a 
promise, do more than your own share toward its fulfillment; see that 
the next after you does his share, if you can. As you sell goods, cutoff 
and lay them together till you have finished. Offer the buyer a parcels 
check, and if there be occasion explain its use. 



ABOUT DRY GOODS 195 

An Important Legal Decision. 
The Court of Appeals has rendered an important desision touching 
the business relations of husband and wife. The case at issue was a 
limited partnership between a man and his wife, the latter being- a special 
partner and contributing- $25,000 to the common fund. An action being 
brought against the firm for debt the question arose whether she was 
liable. Of the seven judges of court three held that a married woman 
might engage in business for herself, or form a partnership with any 
one else but her husband, but that she cannot legally enter into partner- 
ship with her husband, and that although they agree to become partners 
and incur liabilities she is not liable to the creditors. Four of the 
judges, however, per contra, held that a married woman is as free to 
enter into a business partnership with her husband as with anyone, and 
that if she does so, and the firm incurs liabilites, she has all the respon- 
sibility of a partner, and is liable to the creditors for the debts of the 
firm. For the present, therefore, this decision holds good as the law of 
the State of New York. 

One secret in Dyeing. 
Some years ago an English manufacturer of carmine, who was aware 
of the superiority of the French color, went to Lyons for the purpose of 
improving his process, and bargained with the most celebrated manu- 
facturer in that city for the acquisition of his secret, for which he was 
to pay $5,000. He was shown all of the process, and saw a most beau- 
tiful color produced; but he found not the least difference in the French 
mode of fabrication and that which had been constantly adopted by 
himself. He appealed to his instructor and insisted that he must have 
kept something concealed. The man assured him he had not, and in- 
vited him te inspect the process a second time. He minutely examined 
the water and the materials, which were in every respact similar to his 
own, and then, very much surprised, said: "I have lost both my labor 
• and my money, for the air of England does not permit us to make good 
carmine.'" 

"Stay," said the Frenchman, "don't deceive yourself; what kind of 
weather is it now?" 

"A bright, sunny day, u replied the Englishman. 

"And such are the days," said the Frenchman, "on which I make my 
color; were I to attempt to manufacture it on a dark cloudy dav, my re- 
sults would be the same as yours. Let me advise you, my friend, only 
to make your carmine on bright, sunny days." 

The moral of this will apply quite as well to the making of many 
other colors used in manufactures and also in the fine arts, for it illus- 
trates, in a practical way, the chemical influence of light upon certaim 
coloring compounds or mixtures. 



196 INTERESTING FACTS 

Cost of Cotton in a Yard of Print Cloth. 

From a New Hamshire print cloth manufacturing- firm, which was 
established away back in the forties and which produces 64x64 cloths in 
grey, using - warp No. 30 and filling No. 38, we have the following state- 
ment of the cost of the cotton necessary to make a yard of 64x64 print 
cloth: 

COST 
Yn ' iK ' CENTS. 

1855 ,. 01.98 

1860 02.35 

1865 07.71 

1870 04.31 

1875 03.14 

1880 01.96 

Wool and Worsted. 

There are two great classes of manufacturers in this country, employ- 
ed in working" into a variety of fabrics, both woo] and worsted. While 
both are the same raw materials, i. e.. the fibre from sheep, still they 
are in many respects unlike each other. Wherein lies the difference? 
wool, in its raw state, is fibre brought into a condition for spinning by 
being "carded." By this process the fibre is crossed and interlocked, 
like the meshes of a spider's web. Worsted, on the other hand, is fibre 
prepared bv "combing," and requires the long hairs to be laid parallel 
with each other, thereby making a yarn quite unlike the wool yarns. 
Throughout the processes of worsted }^arn manufacture, the fibres of 
which it is composed are mechanically arranged according to one regu- 
lar order of parallelism, producing by this method a more symmetrical 
thread than the pure woolen, where the fibres project from the main 
body or central core of the yarn on all points of its circumference. 

Terms Used by Dressmakers. 

The following is a list of the words and terms used by dressmakers, 
and their meanings: An apron is any sort of a draped skirt; a tablier 
is a flat, undraped skirt front; a full back means a straight back to the 
skirt, gathered in two or more rows at the top; a panel is a straight 
piece for the front or sides, set in between a trimming of some kind to 
convey the idea of an inlay: a Spanish flounce is one reaching from the 
knees down, and gathered to form an erect ruffle. Knife plaits are verv 
narrow side plaits, and accordion plaits are are still narrower, pressed 
in shape by machinery; kilt plaits art those turned one way, and box 
plaits have a fold to the right side and one to the left; double and triple 
box plaits have two or three folds on either side; a "kilt" means a skirt 
made entirely of kilt plaits. 



ABOUT DRY GOODS 197 

Modern use of Hand-Looms. 

Although the hand-loom has latterly been very largely superseded by 
the power-loom, yet it still holds an important place in the weaving- of 
some kinds of textiles, for the reason that it is simple and can be readily 
altered to suit the requirments of any particular branch of woven fabrics. 
For figured goods, where irregular and complicated order of weft threads 
of several colors are used, the hand-loom is again the best adapted, 
simply because the weaver can readily control its motions so as to make 
them accord with the required method of coloring the design. Plush 
fabrics and various classes of tapestry cloths, carpets, and figured shawls 
are also, to some extent, woven on the hand-loom, but its special role is 
certainly in pattern production. 

Practical Knowledge of the Ancients. 
Roslini, a celebrated historian, says, concerning the knowledge of the 
Ancients, philologists, astronomers, chemists, painters, architects and 
physicians must return to Egypt to learn the origin of language and 
writing; of the cuttingof granite with a copper chisel, and of giving 
elasticity to a copper sword; of making glass with the variegated hues 
of the rainbow; of moving single blocks of polished syenite nine hundred 
tons in weight any distance by land and water; of building arches round 
and pointed with masonic precision, unsurpassed at the present day and 
antecedent by 2,000 years before the Dorians are known in histor}^; of 
fresco painting in imperishable colors, and of practical knowledge of 
anatomy." 

A New Fibre Discovered. 

A new fibric plant has just been discovered that is claimed to be bet- 
ter than ramie. It is a native of the West Indies, having been found on 
»the Island of Trinidad. The great advantage possessed by this plant 
is that the ribbons at nearly all times of the year are easily despatched 
from the wooden portion by simply stripping them with the hand, and, 
therefore, a decorticating machine is not required as for ramie. When 
it is known how readily the stems allow themselves to be deprived of 
their coating of bark and fibre it will be seen what an advantage this 
simple fact gives the new product over many of the fibre-producing 
plants. All that is required is to cut the stems, which are fully 10 feet 
long, split the bark at the larger end and strip off the bark from end to 
end without stopping, as fortunately the stem have no side branches. 
Samples submitted to London brokers were most favorably reported on, 
and were valued at from ^#17 to ^20 per ton. It is thought that ramie 
will probably be beaten by this new fibre, when cultivators fully realize 
the greater ease and consequent 'less expense with which it can be dec- 
orticated. 



198 INTERESTING FACTS 

■Wool and Cotton in France 

The French woolen industry requires annually about 220,000,000 lbs. 
of raw wool. Of this quantity France only produces about one-fifth, 
the remainder being- supplied chiefly by Australia and La Plata. The 
French wool is grown in the central and southern Departments. France 
raises no cotton, but procures the raw material mainly from the United 
States. In 1890 she exported cotton fabrics to the amount of S18,952,02<», 
employing men. women and children 12<U><H). 

Judging Hosiery. 

All hosiery is to be judged by the fineness of the thread and the close- 
ness of the texture, which in the case of stockings especially, may be 
partly appreciated by weighing, as it were, the articles in the hand. 
In ribbed stockings a deception is sometimes practiced, against which 
it is necessary to guard. The spaces between the ribs, which ought to 
formed by an inversion of the stitch, contains no stitch at all, but an 
open range of threads pervious to the weather and utterly destitute of 
durability. As ribs of stocking's exposed to sale are necessaril}* almost 
in contact, the fault cannot be detected without introducing the hand 
and opening the tissue, where it will be instantly apparent, and indeed 
will exactly resemble the flaw caused by a dropped stitch in a stocking - 
in wear. 

Terms in Use Among the Shoe Trade. 

The following - are the terms, and their abbreviations, used by all 
wholesale houses in billing shoes. 

G. K. M. S. means glazed kid, machine sewed. 

M. S. R. H. Button, means machine sewed, regular heel, button. 

M. S. P. L. means machine sewed, plain toe. 

M. S. F. H. means machine sewed, French heel. 

H. D. S. means half donble sole. 

M. S. S. means machine sewed, seamless. 

M. S. means machine sewed. 

% D. S. means half double sole. 

T. S. means tap sole. 

F. H. means Erench heel. 

R. H. means regular heel. 

C. S. means common sense. 

F. S. means fair stitch. 

L. T. T. means London toe tip. 

F. T. means French toe. 

S. K. means split kip. 

M. G. means Milwaukee irrain. 



ABOUT DRY GOODS 199 

Fineness of Fur, Wool and Human Hair 

Although the thickness of the fibre of the finer furs has never been 
properly gauged, it will D2 a source of SDtns satisfaction to know that 
"the diameter of the human hair varies from the 250th to the 600th 
part of an inch, while the fibre of the coarsest wool is about 500th, and 
the finest about the 1,500th part of an inch. 11 

Lengths of Folds. 

All dress silks are put up in folds 1% yards long- (one aune.) French 
fabrics, such as satteens, lawns, organdies, etc. are usually put up in 
folds of one metre— one yard and a tenth. The same descriptions of 
fabrics made in the United States are folded in one yard lengths. '^Both 
French and Amercan silks, however, are folded in aune lengths. 

Hair Manufactures. 
The various uses to which hair is applied are familiar to every one. 
The most valuable kind is human hair. The making of wigs, perukes, 
beards, whiskers, moustaches, eyebrows, fronts, chignons, etc., consti- 
tutes a trade in itself, in which many ingenious processes are involved. 
Belonging to what may by called the chemistry of the trade is the pre- 
paration of hair dyes, hair washes, hair pomades and hair powders. 
How far the artist succeeds in increasing the beauty of human hair$ by 
these additions is a matter of fashion and individual taste; but the 
amount of trade done in this way is very large. Horse hair — to prepare 
this for manufactures, it is classified into best, seconds, black, grey, 
soft, hard, curling, spinning, weaving, etc. To prepare the curled hair 
for stuffing cushions, etc., short horse hair is carded between teeth or 
combs, tipped or beaten in a heap with a cane, curled into a kind of rope 
steeped in cold water, heated in an oven, opened by partial uncurling in 
an oposite direction, and towzled or picked into curling pieces, which 
acquire a remarkable springy quality. Short white hair is used for 
brushes. Hair of medium length is spun into clothes-lines and woven 
into filtering bags, etc. The long hair, by processes of hecking, carding 
etc., is woven up into horsehair cloth for sofa coverings, etc., which has 
a black, flaxed warp with a horsehair weft, each weft thread consisting 
of a single hair.. According to the length of the hair, so can this cloth 
be made to widths varying from 14 to 40 inches. Long white horsehairs 
are used for violin bows and fishing lines. At some of the industrial 
exhibitions there have been displayed, from Russia, bowls, dishes and 
plates made of hare and rabbit hair, felted into a tough layer and var- 
nished; they had something the appearance of papier-mache. These, 
however, were examples rather of fur-work than hair-work. For var- 
irous purposes in arts, the hair of the camel, fitch, sable, hog, cow, bad- 
ger, goat, dog and other animals is used. 



200 INTERESTING FACTS 

Widow's "Weeds." 

The custom for widows to wear a peculiar style of cap is of Roman 
origin, and the wearing - of some sort of weeds was compulsory for ten 
months. The term "weeds" first began to be used during- the Middle 
Ages to signify an entire dress. 

Some of the Uses of Silk. 

Silk is an agreeable and healty material. Used in dress, it retains 
the electricity of our bodies; in the drapery of our rooms and furniture- 
covers it reflects the sunbeams, giving them a quicker brilliancy, and it 
heightens colors with a charming light. It has an clement of cheerful- 
ness, of which the dull surface of wool and linen are destitute. It also 
promotes cleanliness, will not readily gather dirt, and does not harbor 
vermin as kindly as wool does. Its continually growing use by man. 
accordingly, is beneficial in many ways. Grace and beauty, even, owe 
something to silk. You can not stiffen it like thick woolen or linen 
without destroying all its gloss and value. The more silk ribbons, 
therefore — the more silk kerchiefs and robes are used, instead of. linen 
and wool — the more graceful becomes the outward aspect of mankind. 
The fluttering of ribbon, the rustling and flowing skirts of silk, the 
kerchief knotted loosely around the neck, have materially contributed 
to make our customs more natural and pleasing to the eye. 

Facts About Cotton Textures. 

The beauty or excellence of some cotton cloths consist in the close- 
ness of their texture, that of others in the openness and regularitr of 
the intervals between the warp and weft threads. Recent experiments 
have shown that cotton may be heated to 248 deg. F., for three hours, 
without apparent injury. The same is true of printed cottons. The 
temperature, however, if continued for a long period, will slightly alter 
the color of cotton, but will not otherwise injure it. According to the 
most reliable historical and manufacturing authorities, no cotton sheet- 
ings, shirtings, ginghams or checks, were made in the United States 
prior to the year 1790. All such classes of goods then used by our peo- 
ple were imported, being of English manufacture, and- of linen warp, 
with cotton weft. The first cotton goods of English make in which both 
the warp and weft were wholly and entirely of eotton, were made at 
Derby, in 1793. After a considerable quantity of these goods had been 
made up, the manufacturer of them was informed that an existing law 
imposed not only a double dut}- upon them, but also forbade the sale of 
them in the home market. This law had been enacted by Parliament 
man}' years before for the protection of the linen weavers, but in 17^7 it 
was repealed. 



ABOUT DRY GOODS 201 

Harmony of Colors. 

There are but three primary colors generally recognized, blue, red 
and yellow. These are called primary, because they cannot be produced 
by compounding- any other colors. The secondary colors are green, 
purple and orange. These are called secondaries beeause blue and yel- 
low make green, red and blue make purple, and red and yellow, orange. 
From these is derived the tertiaries, olive, citrine and russet. Purple 
and green make olive; orange and green citrine; purple and orange, 
russet. Thus we have the three classifications denoting all the colors 
proper extant. From these are derived the hues, tints and shades. A 
hue is obtained by the combination of any of the primaries. The hue 
may vary according to the predominating influence of one color over 
another. A "tint" is obtained by. simply adding white to any of these 
colors; and to form a "shade" add black or any of the dark colors. 

So from the above we have the alphabet of colors. The varieties of 
tones, tints, hues or shades to be obtained from this alphabet are as 
kaliedioscopic in their possibilities as the alphabet of letters. The hand 
of man or the skill of the artist will never exhaust them 

There is still another term used in relation to colors which bears its 
own significance also. While we have our three primary colors to start 
from, yet we have no standard "tone" from which to start our secondar- 
ies. There are many different kinds of red, yellow and blue, and we 
signify the difference as "tones," the same as the term is applied to dif- 
ferent instruments of the same kind. One often says that this piano 
has a better tone than that piano. So we will find in selecting our pri- 
maries. While some of the high toned reds will produce a much more 
beautiful tint, yet they are too fugitive to use for dyeing fabrics, while 
the same is true of greens and yellows. 

Wool has generally the strongest affinity to color, when it comes to 
dyeing. Next to wool, silk and other animal substances receive it best; 
cotton is the third, and hemp and flax follow successively. As a rule, 
pigments and dyestuffs do not produce permanent colors, and some sub- 
stance is required to produce an affinity between the cloth aud coloring 
matter. The substances that are employed to act as this bond of union 
are called "mordants," whose uses were known to the Egyptians and 
other nations of remote antiquity. Specifically, mordants, in dyeing 
and cloth printing, is a body, which having two-fold coloring particles, 
serves as a bond of unit)- between them, and thus gives a fixit}- to the 
dyes; Or, it signifies a substance by which, combined with the coloring 
particles in the pores on textile filaments, renders them insoluble in 
soapy and weak alkaline solutions. Mordants is also the substance 
previous^ applied to the goods in order that they may afterward retain 
in part the dye. 



202 INTERESTING FACTS 

Russian Industry. 

The largest cotton mill in the world is that of Kranholm, in Russia. 
This colossal establishment contains 340,000 spindles and 2,200 looms, 
and gives employment to 7,000 hands. The work people are Russians 
and Esthonians. The week's work is calculated at 79 hours, and the 
wages vary from $9.00 to S30.00 per month. Russia also owns nearly 
50,000,000 ordinary sheep and 15,000,000 merinos. European Russia 
has 40.000,000, of which 38,000,000 are ordinary sheep and 2,000,000 
merinos. The Caucasas has 12,000,000, of which 10,000,000 are ordinary 
sheep and 2,000,000 are merinos. Sheep are met with in nearly every 
province of Russia, thougii they are far more numerous in the Southern 
provinces than those of the North. 

Gold Thread and Gold Lace. 

The base of the "gold thread" of commerce is silver, bought by the 
European manufacturers from the Bank of England in cakes weighing 
about 1000 ounces. Gold leaf is carefully incorporated with the silver 
bv hammering, and afterward the whole is subjected to a charcoal fire. 
The bar is now ready ror conversion into wire. This is accomplished 
by drawing it from 100 to 150 times through ever diminishing holes in 
steel plates; and finally, when the capabilities of this metal has been 
exhausted, the wire is passed through apertures in diamonds, sapphires 
or rubies. The delicate wire thus obtained must now be passed through 
the steel rollers of one of Herr Krupp's little "flatting mills." This 
brings the wire to the final process — the spinning of the flattened wire 
round silk, to form the golden thread of commerce. 

Gold Lace or more properly gilt lace is a thin covering of gold applied 
to a surface of silver, which again has a foundation of silk. The silken 
threads for making this material are wound around with gold wire so 
thickly as to conceal the silk; and the making of this gold wire is still 
more singular than the making of gold thread. In the first place, the 
refiner prepares a solid rod of silver, about an inch in thickness; he beats 
this rod, applies upon the surface a coating of gold leaf, burnishes this 
down, applies another coating, burnishes this down, and so on until the 
gold is about one hundredth part of the thickness of the silver. Then 
the rod is subjected to a train of processes which brings it down to the 
state of tine wire; it is the passed through holes in a steel plate, lessened 
step bv step in diameter. The gold never deserts the silver, but ad- 
heres close! v to it and shares all its mutations. It was one hundredth 
part the thickness of the silver at the beginning, and it maintains the 
same ratio to the end. It has been calculated that the gold on the very 
finest silver wire for gold lace is not more than one third of one millionth 
part of an inch in thickness; that is, not above one-tenth the thickness 
of ordinarv leaf gold, such as dentists use 



ABOUT DRY GOODS 203 

Value of Royal *_,aces. 

The lace treasures of royal and wealthy Kuropean families are prac- 
tically beyond price. Queen Victoria's laces are valued at over half a 
million dollars. Those of ex-Empress Eugenia aggregated almost a 
million. The Spanish regal laces are not less precious, and the sacred 
vestments and sacramental furnishings of St. Peter's and other Roman 
churches are of incalculable value. 

Harmonious Colors. 
The following list of harmonious color contrasts will be found very 
useful in window trimming and interior store decoration: Red with 
green, blue with orange, yellow with violet, black with warm-brown, 
chocolote with light blue, violet with pale-green, violet with light rose, 
deep blue with golden brown, deep red with gray, maroon with warm- 
green, deep blue with pink, chocolate with pea green, maroon with 
deep blue, claret with buff, black with warm green, black with scarlet. 

Customs Decision — Duty on "Diagonals." 

The Supreme Court of the United States has decided, that an impor- 
tation of cloths known as "diagonals" was, under the law as it existed 
before the recent passage of the worsted law, dutiable at 24c per pound 
and 35 per cent, ad valorem as "manufactures of worsted not otherwise 
provided for," and not at 35c per pound and 35 per cent, ad valorem as 
"manufactures of wool." These goods are known to the trade as 
"worsteds," and the court holds that they must, therefore, be held to be 
dutiable under the paragraph relating to "worsteds," regardless of the 
fact that they are the product of wool. 

Origin of Long Measure. 
Ou r measures of length orignated in the dawn of civilization, and 
came to us through the Anglo-Saxons. The yard was originally the 
length of a king's arm; the foot the length of his pedal extremities. 
The word inch is derived from the Latin uncia, a twelfth part, but why 
the foot was divided into twelfths, instead of tenths or elevenths, no one 
claims to be wise enough to tell. It has been suggested thay probably 
the inch was orignally the length of the second jaint of the forefinger, 
and that twelve of these aboui equal the length of the forearm, which 
averages about one foot in length. Aune, which is a cloth measure of 
one yard and a quarter, it derived from the Latin alna forearm. The 
inch used to be divided into three "barleycorns," which were semply 
the length of the grain or "corn" or the barley. The "mile" was reck- 
oned at one 1,000 paces, as its name shows, for it is derived from the 
Latin phrase millia passuum, "a thousand paces." The origin of the 
"rod" is doubtful. 



204 



INTERESTING FACTS 



Prices of Standard Cottons for a Series of Years. 

The following table give the wholesale prices muslins sheeting, tick- 
ing, denim, drilling jean, prints, ginghams, etc., at different periods 
during the past 30 years. The first column gives the price of standard 
makes in the month of January 1859; the second column prices in Jan- 
uary 1860; the third column prices in January 1887; the fourth column 
prices in August 1889; the fifth column prices in January 1891 : 

UNBLEACHED MUSLIN AND SHEETING: 

Price in Price in Price in Price Price 

1859 i860 1887 1889 1891 

Cents Cents Cents Gents Cents 

Appleton A 36-inch 9 8}i 7 6^ 7 

Atlantic A 36-in 9 8% 7% 7 7 

Graniteville EE 36 in 8% 7 6}4 t>% 6 

Great Falls E 36-in 7 7 7 7 7 

Indian Head 36-in . m 9 8^8 7% 63/ 4 7y 2 

Indian Head 30-in ." 7 7 7 

Indian Head 40-in 11^ 11 10^ 10 10 

Massachusetts A 36-in 7 7^ 7 6^ b# 

Nashua R 36-in 8 8% 7 7 7% 

Pepperell E 39-in 9 9 7 7 7 

Pepperell R 36-in Wt 9 6^ 6y 2 6% 

Pepperell O 33-in 8 6 6 6 

Pocassett Canoe 36-in 9 8 6j/ 2 6% 6^ 

Stark A 36-in 9 8 7]/ A 7 7 

BLEACHED MUSLINS AND SHEETINGS. 

Blackstone A 36-in 10 10 8 7y 2 7% 

Boott R 30-in 7 5 S% 5 

Great Falls M 33-in 9 9 b% 6J{ 6% 

Hope 36-in . . 9 8 7 x / 2 7% 7 l / 2 

Lonsdale 36-in 11 12 9 8 S l / 2 

Masonville 36-in 12 9 8% 8% 

New York Mills 15 15 11 10 10>4 

Wamsutta 36-in 12 13 11 10 10>^ 

Wauregan WT 36-in 12 13 9 9 ' 4 9% 

White Rock 36-in 12 8 8 7% 

Pepperell 6-4 16 14 13# 13# 

Pepperell 9-4 26 20 20 18 

Pepperell 10-4 30 23 24 22^ 

Utica Steam Cot. Mills 36-in ....... 10 11 9 8 

BROWN DRILLING. 

Laconia unbleachsd 9 7 6^ 7 

Laconia blue .11 10 10 10>^ 

Massachusetts 9 8 7 6% (>%■ 

Pepperell 10 9 7 7 7% 

Stark 10 9 7 7 7}i 



ABOUT DRY GOODS. 



205 



Prices of Cottons — Continued. 

DENIMS. 

Price in Price in Price in Price Price 

1859 i860 1887 1889 1891 

Cents Cents Cents Cents Cents 

Amoskeag- \ 14}^ 15 14 13 13 

Columbian 10 10 12 10 10 

Otis AAA 10 10 12 10 10# 

Pearl River 15 15 14 13 12 

WarrenBB ....10 10 10-9 % 

York 15 141 13£ 12£ 12J 

CORSET JEANS. 

Peppereir colored ............. 10 9 8J 8 8* 

Pepperell bleached ...10 9A 8h 8 8* 

Naumkeag- bleach'd and col'd... 9h 9 7k 7 7% 

Laconia bleach'd and col'd 9k 8 6& 6£ 6| 

TICKINGS. 

Amoskeag- ACA 32-in . 16* 17 14 12$ 12$ 

Amoskeag- A 32-in ....13 13$ 13 11$ 11 

Amoskeag- B 32-in 11$ 12$ 12 11 lOi 

Amoskeag- C 32-in .......11 11$ 11$ 10$ lo| 

Amoskeag- D ...10 10$ 11 9$ 9$ 

Amoskeag- awning- 32-in . 11 11$ 13 15 15 

Conestog-a CCA 30-in ....... 14$ 14$ 13 11 . 11$ 

Hamilton 30-in 11 J 11$ 11 10 10i 

Pearl River 32-in 15$ 15$ 13* 12 12 

Thorndike A 9$ 9* 8 7$ 7 

York 30-in..,.. 13* 12$ 13 12 12* 

York 32-in 16 1.6 15 13 15 

PRINTS. 

Aliens staples 10 9$ 5$ 6 6 

American... 20 9$ 5$ 6 6$ 

Garner..... 9$ 8" 5* 6 6 

Merrimack..... 10 94 6 6* 6$ 

GINGHAM 

Lancaster staples ' 10 9 7$ 6 7# 

Manchester 9* 8 ' 6# 5* 6 

Sell Good Goods. 

In selling g-oods never talk price, but always quality. Quality is 
what after all, makes or loses a customer. Price has nothing- to do with 
a customer's palate. We are all, more or less, slaves to appetite, and 

know no other law than self gratification. The pleased palate is wed- 
ded to the sources of its gratification, and does not stop to compare 
prices. If an article is offered cheaper bv some competitor, the pleased 

customer says it is because the service is inefficient, or that a low price 
on one article is only an excuse for an extravagant price on another, and 
therefore he becomes the steady patron of the store where quality is the 
first considered, and where a fair price is the rule. 



INTERESTING FACTS 206 



Fabrigs in Rhtme. 



Aprons. 

Stephen Gosson in his Pleasant Quippes for Upstart Gentlewomen, 1596, 
inveighs against aprons in the following- lines: 

" These aprons white of finest thred, 

So closely tied, so dearly bought, 
So finely fringed, so nicely spred, 

So quaintlie cut, so richlie wrought; 
Were they in work to save their cotes, 
They need not cost so many grotes." 

In the Ballad of Hardyhnute, published in the year 1719, is a notice of 
" An apron set with many a dice. 
Of needlework so rare. 
Wove by nae hand, as }*e may guess, 
Safe that of Fairly fair." 

" Fortune in man has some small difference made: 
One flaunts in rags, one nutters in brocade; 
The cobbler apron'd, and the parson g-own'd, 
The friar hooded and the monarch crown'd." 

Pope : Essay on Man. 

Bombast. 

D'Urfey, in his Pills to Purge Melancholly, refers to — 

" My high commode, my damask gown, 
My laced shoes of Spanish leather; 
A bombast hat upon my head, 
And a daint}- plume of feather." 

In a ballad entitled The Sorrowful Lamentation of the Pedlars, we find — 
" Here's garters for hose, and cotton for shoes, 
And there's fine bombast that none would refuse. 
This present let John give his sweet mistress Jane, 
And then of unkindness she shall not complain. 

Then maidens and men, come, see what you lack, 
And buy the fine things that I have in my pack." 

" Thy bodies bolstered out, 

With bombast and with bagges 
Thy roales, th}~ ruffs, thy cauls, thy cuffes, 
Thy jerkins and thy jagges." 
George Gascoigne : The Story of Ferdinand Jeroninri, 1590. 



FABRICS IN RHYME. 207 

Busk. 

In Albion's England, the following- passage, alluding to busk occurs: 

" Her face was masked, her locks were curl'd, 
Her body pent with buske, 
And, which was needless, she more sweet, 
Her raiment scented musk." 

Hall in his Satires, 1598, in dealing with the dandies, speaks of those who 

" Wear curled periwigs, and chalk their face, 
And still are poring on their pocket glass, 
Attired with ruffs, and fans, and partlet strips, 
And busks and farthingales about their hips." 

Cap. 
In a play of Dekker's The Honest Whore, 1630, caps are highly spoken of: 

" It's light for summer, and in cold it sits 
Close to the skull, a warm house for the wits; 
It shows the whole face boldly, 'tis not made 
As if a man to look on't were afraid; 
Nor like a draper's shop, with broad dark shed; 
For he's no citizen that hides his head. 
Hats, caps, as proper are to city gowns, 
As to armor helmets, or to kings their crowns. 

Carding. 

" With wiry teeth, revolving - cards release 
The tangled knots, and smooth the ravell'd fleece: 
Next moves the iron hand with fingers fine, 
Combs the wide card, and forms the eternal line." 

" Soon the clothier's shears 
And burler's thistle skim the surface sheen." 

Dyer : The Fleece. 

Garters. 

" When we were maids (quoth one of them) 

Was no such new-found pride, 
Then wore they shoes of ease, now of 

An inch-broad-corked high. 
Black kersey stockings, worsted now, 

Yea, silk of youthful'st die; 
Garters of list, but now of silk. 

Some edged deep with gold; 
With costlier toys, for corser times, 

Than used prehaps of old. " 

Warner: Albion's England, 1606. 

" Whereto should I disclose 
The gathering of her hose. " 

Skelton: BoJce of Philip Sparrow. 



208 EABRICS IN RHYME. 

Cotton and Wool. 

" The loaded distaff in the left hand placed, 

With spongy coils of snow white wool was graced; 
From these the right hand lengthening fibres drew, 
Which into thread 'neath nimble fingers grew. 
At intervals a gentle touch was given, 
By which the twirling whorl was onward driven, 
Then when the sinking spindle reach'd the ground, 
The recent thread around its spire was wound, 
Until the clasp within its nipping cleft 
Held fast the newly-finished length of weft." 

" And every sultry clime (yields) the snowy down 
Of cotton bursting from its stubborn shell, 
To gleam amid the verdure of the grove." 

Embroidery. 

" Here the needle plies its busy task; 

The pattern grows, the well-depicted flower, 
Wrought patiently into the snowy lawn, 
Unfolds its bosom; buds, and leaves, and sprigs, 
And curling tendrils; gracefully dispos'd 
Follow the nimble fingers of the fair." 

Cowper : The Winter Evening. 

" Too long my erring eyes have rov'd 
On city dames in scarlet dress; 
And scorned the charmful village maid, 
With innocence and embroidery blest." 

Thompson : The Milkmaid. 

Hoops. 

Somerville thus alludes to a woman who endeavored to conceal the 
fruits of indiscreet love by wearing a huge petticoat: 

" 'Twas vain to hide the apparent load, 
For hoops '---ere not then a la mode." 

" These hoops that hips and paunch do hide, 
And heave aloft the gay hoyst traine, 
As they are now in use for pride 
So did they first begin of paine." 
Stephen Gosson : Pleasant Quippes for Upstart Gentlewemen, 1596. 

" At coming in you saw her stoop, 
The entr}- brushed against her hoop." Swift. 

" Let her hoop extended wide, 

Show what petticoats should hide: 
Garters of the softest silk, 
Stockings whiter than the milk." 

Fawkes : Odes of Anacreon, 1755. 

kl From the hoop's bewitching round 
The very shoe has power to wound." 



FABRICS IN RHYME. 209 

Lawn. 

" Her lawny veil, 
That from his sig-ht it enviously should hide her, 
Those limbs, in lawn and softest silk array 'd, 
From sun-beams guarded, and of winds afraid. 
Can they bear angry Jove? Can they resist? 

Prior : Edwin and Emma. 

" If thou but please to walk into the draper's, 
To buy thee cambrick, calico or lawn, 
If thou the whiteness of the same wouldst prove, 
From thy far whiter hand, pluck off thy glove." 

" Lawn as white as driven snow; 
Cyprus as black as ere was crow; 
Gloves, as sweet as damask roses." 

" Chains, coronets, pendents, bracelets and ear-rings; 
Pins, g-irdles, spangles, embroideries and rings, 
Shadows, rebatoes, ribbands, ruffs, cuffs, cauls, 
Thin taffeties, cobweb lawn and farthingals." 

" 'Tis from high life that characters are drawn, 
A saint in crape is twice a saint in lawn. 

On the Fan. 

k ' The fan shall nutter in all female hands, 
And various fashions learn from various lands. 
For this shall elephants their ivory shed, 
And polished sticks the waving engines spread. 
His clouded main the tortoise shall resign, 
And round the rivet pearly circles shine. 
On this shall Indians all their art employ, 
And with bright colours stain the gaudy toy; 
Their pains shall here in wildest fancies flow, 
Their dress, their customs, their religions show. 
Gay France shall make the fan her artist's care, 
And with the costly trinket arm the fair. " 

" Alas! what would our silk mercers be, 
What would they do, sweet Hempseed, without thee? 
Rash, taffeta, paropa, and novato, 
Shag, filizetta, damask, and mochado. " 

" With curious needle- work 
A g-arment gan she make, 
Wherein she wrote that bale she bode, 
And all for bewti^.s sake. " 
Gascoigne (1530-1577): The Complaint of Philomore. 

" Just like a plow-boy tir'd in a brown jacket, 
And breeches round, long leather point, on placket. " 

Gayton. 



210 FABRICS IN RHYME. 

Hats and Caps. 

" So many pointed caps, 
Laced with double flaps, 
And so many felted hats 

Saw I never. " Skeeton. 

" Their collars, cravats, and false beads 
With velvet hats high on their heads 
Corded with gold like one younkier, 
Browed about with golden threads 
And all for newfangleness of gear." 

Miscellaneous. 

" I come unknown to any of the rest 
To tell ) r ou news, I saw the lady drest; 
The woman plays to-day, mistake me not, 
No man in gown or page in petty- coat; 
A women to my knowledge, yet I can't 
(If I should dye) make affidavit on't. " 

" Her feet beneath her petticoat, 
Like little mice stole in and out, 
As if they fear'd the light. " 

Sir John Suckunc(1609-1641). 

" Short under petticoats, pure, fine, 
Some of Japan stuff, some of Chine, 
With knee-high galloon bottomed; 
Another quilted white and red, 
With a broad Flanders lace below. " 

John Evelyn: Tyrranus; or The Mode, 1661 

' ' To fifty chosen sylyhs of special note 
We trust the important charge, the petticoat; 
Oft have we known that seven fold fence to fail, 
Though stiff with lonys, arm'd with ribs of whale. " 

Pope: Rax>eofthe Lock, 1714. 

" If the maids a spinning goe, 
Burn the flax, and fire the tow, 
Scorch their plackets. " Herrick. 

" Widows doe display 
The stuffs, the velvets, plusher, fringes, lace, 
And all the original riots of the place." Ben Jonson. 

" Richesse a robe of purple on had, 
Ne trow not that she had it mad, 
Ne by a thousand deale as riche, 
Ne none so faire for it full well 
With orfrais laid was every dell 
And purtraid in the ribanings 
With Dukes stories and of Kin«-s." 



FABRICS IN RHYME. 211 

Miscellaneous. 

' He must change his russeting 
For satin and silke 
And he must weare no linnen shirte 
That is not white as milke. 
To come of well-borne f amlie. " Tarlton. 

' I saw a smith stand wihh his hammer thus 
The whilst his iron did on the anvil cool, 
With open mouth swollowing a tailors news; 
Who, with his shears and mersure in his hand, 
Standing - on slippers (which his nimble haste 
Had falsely thrust upon contrary feet), 
Told of many a thousand warlike French, 
That were embatteled and rank'd in Kent. " 

Shakespcare: King John. 

" Nor deems he wiser him, who gives his noon 
, To Miss, the mercer's plague, from shop to shop, 
Wond'ring - and litt'ridg - with unfolded silks 
The polish'd counter, aud approving none, 
Or peomising with smils to call again." CowpEr: 1784 

Hair for Mattresses. 

The best hair for mattresses is said to be horsehair. When hair is 
prepared for mattresses it is twisted round wood on cylinders and boiled, 
and then baked in an oven to give it a curly and springy feature. 

Mosquetaire Gloves. 

Mosquetaire was formerly the name of a turn-over collar, usually of 
plain starched linen, worn by women about 1850. The mousquetaire 
glove is a glove with a long, loose top, with a short lengthwise slit at 
the wrist, and is so called from its resemblance to a military glove, or 
the gloves of a musketeer (French mousquetaire.) 

Gobelin Dress Fabrics. 

Gobelin dress fabrics belong to a species of large brocades, woven of 
wqol and silk mixed. One of the peculiar features of this material is 
the peculiar coloring of them, which is always done in a kind of faded, 
delicate shades. The woven-in patterns are technically so perfect as 
to appear like embroidered work, while the ground of the fabric resem- 
bles the well-known Turkish shawl pattern. Multi-colored silk threads 
in relief, closely cover the surface, which is intersected by large velvet 
or moire on figured stripes. Rich and striking effects are produced by 
ornamenting this Gobelin fabric with golden crescents and similar fig- 
ures, arranged in stripes and all-over designs. 



212 INTERESTING FACTS 

Origin of Sur- Names from the Wool Trade. 

For ages wool was the staple of England, and thousands of busy op- 
eratives were employed in the various processes necessary before the 
wool could be transferred from the back of the sheep to the back of the 
man. At every step, proper names indicative of the calling- of those 
who bore them sprang- up, so that, were we ig-norant of the fact, that 
our ancestors the Saxons dealt in wool and made cloth, we mig-ht draw 
perfectly correct and legitimate conclusions as to the business, its ex- 
tent and various departments, from the family names still surviving-. 
In the first place, the sheep were cared for b}- the Shepard or Sheepherd, 
a family name which with variations of spelling-, is extremely common 
both in this country and England. Shearing- was the first operation re- 
quiring- either delicacy or skill, and Shearer, Shearman, Shurman and 
similar names bespeak their own ancestrv. The wool was then placed 
in bags, made by the sackers or canvasers, and was ready for the mer- 
chant, an individual often known as Stapler, Wool, Wooler, Woolman 
or Woolse}', or in French as Lanier or Lam^er. He consigned it to the 
care of persons who transported it from place to place on the backs of 
pack horses or in vehicles, and were thus known as the "Packers, the 
Carters or the Carriers. The wool was then handed over to the Carders 
and Combers, or Kempers and Kemsters, as they were various^ called, 
and passed from their hands to those of the Spinners, who used imple- 
ments made by the Spindlers and Sla} T ers, afterwards going to the 
Weavers, Weevers, Webbs, Webbers or feminine Websters. The cloth 
was next ''teased" to bring out the nap, a process done by the Teasers, 
Tosers, Teazelers, or Ta3 T lors, when the woolen cloth was finished and 
ready for the Dyer, Litter, or Lister. The Fullers, Fullertons, Fuller- 
sons and Fullmans undertook the process of shrinking the cloth, in 
which the}' were assisted by +he Walkers, who trod it with their feet, 
accompanied by the Beaters, Beatermans, Bates, Batts and Battmans, 
who used sticks, bats and mallets instead of their heels and toes. The 
designation of the process is seen to give a name to all engaged in a 
special work, just as at present, and further to be adopted as a family 
name by some who perhaps attained notable excellenoe over their fel- 
lows, or were led by chance or caprice to adopt the title of their calling 
as their own surname. 

Origin of Thread. 

Samuel Slater, of Slatervilie, Rhode Island, is generally reg-arded as 
the father of cotton manufacturing in this country. It is onl} T known 
to a few that the world is indebted to this man for the discovery of cot- 
ton thread. In 1794, while spinning a quantit}- of Sea Island cotton, 
the beauty and evenness of the yarn attracted the attention of Mrs. 



ABOUT DRY GOODS. 213 

Slater. The question arose, if this is doubled and twisted, why will it 
not make good sewing thread? The experiment was made, and, in order 
to be fully satisfied of the result, a sheet was made with one-half linen 
thread and the other half of cotton. It was immediately put into use, 
and the first thread thread that gave wav was the linen. From this 
period he commenced the manufacture of thread, and it soon spread 
into England, France and other European countries, where it is gener- 
alty supposed to be of English origin. Samuel Slater was born in Der- 
byshire, England, in 1768. When 22 years old he arrived in the United 
States, and entered into contract with Messrs. Almy and Brown at 
Providence Rhode Island, for the erection of cotton spinning machinery. 
December, 1890 he started a mill with three carding engines and seventy 
spindles, which was virtually the beginning of cotton manufacture in 
this country. He died at Webster Massachusetts, April 22, 1835. 

The Metric System of Length. 

The Metric System is the system of measurement of which the metre 
is the fundamental unit. First adopted in France in the year 1800, it is 
in use, in most other civilized countries, except the English speaking- 
countries, and is now almost universal^ adopted for scientific measure- 
ments. Its use is permitted in Great Britain, and was legalized in the 
United States in 1866. The metre, the unit of length, is the one ten- 
millionth part of the earth's meridian quadrant, that is, the distance 
from either pole to the equator, which is just one-fourth of the earth's 
circumference. The metre is one ten-millionth part of this distance. 
Its length is 39.370 inches, or about one yard and a tenth. 



1 millimetre = 


0.03937 inches 


1 centimetre = 


0.3937 inches. 


1 decimetre = 


3.93708 inches. 


1 metre = 


3.2809 feet. 


1 decametre — 
1 hectometre = 


10.9363 yards. 
109.3633 yards 


1 kilometr = 


0.62138 miles. 



Cloth Measure. 

Cloth Measure is the standard system of lineal units employed exclu- 
sively in measuring cloth. The table is: 



YARD. 


QUARTERS. 


NAILS. 




INCHES 


1 


= 4 = 


16 


== 


36 




1 = 


4 


= 


9 






1 


= 


2Y, 



214 INTERESTING FACTS. 

The Origin of Commerce. 

When tribes had abandoned their wandering- life, and settled in fixed 
abodes, their new situation gave rise to new ideas and pursuits. They 
soon found that the sources from which they had formerly derived this 
subsistence, the spontaneous fruits of the earth, and the flesh of wild 
animals killed in the chase, were insufficient to maintain them when 
their numbers were increased, and their situation more confined. Hence 
the}' were obliged to have recouse \p the breeding of tame cattle, and to 
the culture of the earth. Property being established and ascertained, 
men began to excliang-e one rude commodity for another. While their 
wants and their desires were confined within narrow bounds the}- had no 
other idea of traffic but that of simple barter. The hubandman ex- 
changed a part of his harvest for the cattle of the shepherd; the hunter 
g-ave the prey which he had caug-ht at the chase for the honey and the 
fruits which his neighbor had gathered in the woods. Thus commer- 
cial intercourse begins among- the members of the same community. 
From the inequality and diversity with which the productions of nature 
are distributed in different countries, a more general correspondence 
was by degrees established between distant tribes and nations. No 
longer satisfied with the necessaries, they aspired to the conveniences, 
the accommodations, and the luxuries of life. As the objects of com- 
merce became varied and multiplied, they invited a common measure 
or standard of the value of commodities; after different experiments of 
this kind among different nations the precious metals, from their rarity, 
their beauty, their permanency, and facility of transportation, were un- 
iversally adopted as the symbols of propert} 7 , and the represntives of all 
the productions that are formed by nature, or fabricated by human in- 
dustry. Commerce, thus introduced by the exchange of commodities 
between individuals, gradually diffused itself from city to city, and from 
kingdom to kingdom, till at last it comprehended and united the remot- 
est regions of the earth, and the most distant of the world. Commerce 
first taught nations to see with good will the wealth and prosperity of 
each other. Before, the patriot, unless sufficiently advanced in culture to 
feel the world his country, wished all countries weak, poor and ill gov- 
erned but his own ; he now sees in their wealth and progress a direct 
source of wealth and progress in his own country. It is commerce 
which is rapidly rendering war obsolete, by strengthening and multi- 
plying personal interests which are in natural opposition to it. And it 
may be said, without exaggeration, that the great extent and rapid in- 
crease of international trade, in being the principal guarantee of the 
peace of the world, is of the greatest permanent security for the unin- 
terrupted progress of the ideas, the institutions, and the commerce of 
human race. 



THE TARIFF. 215 

The following- is an official copy of the new Tariff Act, so far as it 
concerns the Dry Goods and kindred branches of trade : 
COTTON MANUFACTURES. 

Cotton thread, yarns, or warp yarn, whether sing-le or advanced be- 
yond the condition of single, by grouping- or twisting two or more single 
yarns together, whether on beams or in bundles, skeins or cops or in 
any other form, except spool thread of cotton hereinafter provided for 
valued at not exceeding 25c. per pound, 10c. per pound; valued at over 
2oc. per lb and not exceeding 40c per lb 18c. per lb; valued at over 40 
per ft. and not exceeding 50c. per ft., 23c. per ft.; valued at over 50c 
per pound, and not exceeding 60c. per ft., 28c. per ft.; valued at over 60c 
per pound and not exceeding 70c. per ft. 33c. per ft.; valued at over 70c 
per pound and not exceeding 80c. per ft., 38c. per ft.; valued at over 80c 
per pound and not exceeding $1 per ft., 48c. per ft.; valued at over $1 
per ft. 50 p. c. ad valorem. 

Spool thread of cotton, containing on each spool not exceeding 100 
yards of thread, 7c. per dozen; exceeding 100 yards on each spool for 
every additional 100 yards of thread or fractional part of 100 yards 7c 
per dozen spools. * ' 

Cotton cloth not bleached, dyed colored, stained, painted or printed 
and not exceeding 50 threads to the square inch, counting the warp and 
tilling-, 2c. per square yard; if bleached, 2^c. per square yard; if dyed 
colored, stained, painted or printed, 4c. per square yard. 

Cotton cloth, not bleaced, dyed, colored, stained, painted or printed 
exceeding 50 and not exceeding 100 threads to the square inch, counting 
the warp and filling- 2 % c. per sq. yd. ; if bleached 3c. per sq. yd. ; if dyed 
colored, stained, painted or printed, 4c. per sq. yd. ; Provided, that on all 
cotton cloth not exceeding 100 threads to the sq. in., counting the warp 
and filling, not bleached dyed, colored, stained, painted or printed val- 
ued at over 6}4 c per sq. yd. ; bleached, valued at over 9c. per sq . yd. ; and 
dyed, colored, stained, painted or printed, valued at over 12c. per sq yd 
there shall be levied collected, and paid a duty of 35c. p. c. ad valorem! 

Cotton cloth not bleached, dyed colored, stained, painted or printed 
exceeding 100 and not exceeding 150 threads to the sq. in.; countino- the 
warp and filling 3c. per sq. yd.; if bleached, 4c. per sq. yd.; if dyed col- 
ored, stained, paihted or printed, 5c. per sq. yd. : Provided, that on all 
cotton cloth exceeding 100 and not exceeding 150 threads to the sq in 
counting the warp and filling, not bleached, dyed colored stained, paint 1 

or P r i nte f valued at over 7£c. per sq. yd.; bleached at over 10c. per 
sq. yd. ; dyed, colored, stained painted or printed, valued at over 124c 
sq yd. there shall be levied, collected and a duty of 40 p. c. ad valorem 

Cotton cloth, not bleached, dyed, colored, stained, painted or printed 
exceeding 150 and not exceeding 200 threads to the sq. in., countino- the 
warp and filling, 3J C . per sq. yd.; if bleached, U per sq. yd.; if dved, 
colored, stained, painted or printed, 5Jc. per sq. yd.; Provided, that on 
all cotton cloth exceeding 150 and not exceeding 200 threads to the sq in 
counting the warp and filling, not bleached dyed colored stained paint- 



216 THE TARIFF. 

ed or printed, valued at over 8c. per sq. yd.; bleached, valued at over 10c 
per sq. yd.; dyed, colored, stained, painted or printed, valued at over 12c. 
per sq. yd., there shall be levied, collected and paid a duty of 45 p. c. ad 
valorem. 

Cotton cloth, not bleached, dyed, colored, stained, painted or printed, 
exceeding 1 200 to the sq. in., counting the warp and filling", 4£c. per sq. 
yd.; if bleached 5£c. per sq. yd.: if dyed, colored, stained, painted or 
printed (> ; j. per sq. yd.: Provided, that on all such cotton cloths not 
bleached, dyed colored, stained, painted or printed, valued at over 10c. 
per sq. yd.; bleached, valued at over 12c. per sq. yd., and dyed, colored, 
stained, painted or printed, valued over 15c. per sq. yd., there shall be 
levied, collected, and paid a duty of 45 p. c. ad valorem. Provided fur- 
hher, that on cotton cloth, bleached, dyed, colored, stained, painted or 
printed, containing- an mixture of silk, and not otherwise provided for, 
there shall be levied, collected, and paid a duty of 10c. per sq. yd. and 
in addition thereto 35 n. c. ad valorem. 

Clothing- readv made, and articles of wearing apparel of every dis- 
cription, handkerchiefs and neckties or neckware composed of cotton or 
other vegetable fibre, or of which cotton or other vegetable fibre is the 
component material of chief value, made up or manufactured wholly or 
in part by the tailor, seamstress or manufacturer, all of the foregoing 
not especially provided for in this act, 50 p. c. ad valorem. Provided, 
that all such clothing, ready made, and articles of wearing apparel 
having india rubber as a compontent material (not including gloves or 
elastic articles that are especially provided for in this act), shall be sub- 
ject to a duty of 50c. per ft)., and' in addition thereto 50c. p. c. ad val- 
orem. 

Plushes, velvets, velveteens, corduroys, and all pile fabrics composed 
of cotton or other vegetable fibre, not bleached, dyed, colored, stained 
painted or printed, 10c. per sq. yd. and 20 p. c. ad valorem; on all such 
goods if bleached, 12c. per sq. yd. and 20 p. c. ad valorem; if dyed, col- 
ored, stained painted or printed, 14c. per sq. yd. and 20 p. c. ad valorem; 
but none of the foregoing articles in this paragraph shall pay a less rate 
of dut}- than 40 p. c. ad valorem. 

Chenille curtains, table covers, and all goods manufactured of cotton 
chenille, or of which cotton chenille forms the component material of 
chief value 60 p. c. ad valorem. 

Stockings, hose and half-hose, made on knitting machines or frames, 
composed of cotton and other vegetable fibre and not otherwise especi- 
ally provided for in this act, and shirts and drawers composed of cotton, 
valued at not more than SI. 50 per dozen. 35 p. c. ad valorem. 

Stockings, hose and half-hose, selvedged, fashoned, narrowed or shap- 
ed wholly or in part by knitting machines or frames, or knit by hand 
including- such as are commercial known as seamless stockings, hose or 
half- hose, all the above composed of cotton or other vegetable fibre, fin- 
isted or unfinisned, valued at not more than 60c. per dozen pairs, and 
in addition thereto 20c. p. c. ad valorem; valued at more than 60c. per 
dozen pairs and not more than S2 per dozen pairs, 50c. per dozen pairs, 
and in dddinion thereto 30 p. c. ad valorem; valued at more than $2 per 
dozen pairs and not more than $4 per dozen pairs, 75c. per dozen pairs, 
and in addition thereto 40 p. c. ad valorem: valued at more than $4 per 
dozen pairs, Si per dozen pairs, and in addition there to 40 p. c. ad val- 



THE TARIFF. 217 

orem;and all shirts and drawers composed of cotton and other vegetable 
fibre valued at more than $1,50 per dozen, and less than $3 per dozen, 
$1 per dozen, and in addition thereto 35 p. c. ad valorem; valued at more 
than $3 per dozen, and not more than $5 per dozen, $1,25 per dozen, and 
in addition there to, 40 p. c. ad valorem; valued at more than $5 per doz 
and not more than $7 per dozen, $1,50 per dozen, and in addition thereto 
40 p. c. ad valoren; valued at more than $7 per dozen, $2 per dozen, and 
in addition thereto, 40 p. c. ad valorem. 

Cotton cords, braids, boot, shoe, and corset lacings, 35c. perlb; cotton 
gimps, galloons, webbing, goring, suspenders, and braces, any of the 
foregotng which are elastic or nonelastic, 40 p. c. ad valorem; Provided 
that none of the articles included in this paragraph shall pay less rate 
of duty than 40 p. c. ad valorem. 

Cotton damask, in the piece or otherwise, and all manufactures of 
cotton not especially provided for in this act, 40 p. c. ad valorem 

FLAX, HEMP, AND JUTE, AND THEIR MANUFACTURES. 

Flax straw, $5 per ton. 

Flax, not hackled or dressed 1 cent per pound. 

Flax, hackled, known as "dressed line," 3 cents per pound. 

Tow, of flax or hemp, one-half of lc. per pound. 

Hemp, $25 per ton; hemp, hackled, known as line of hemp, $50 per ton. 

Yarn made of jute, 35 p. c. ad valorem. 

Cables, cordag-e, and twine (except binding twine composed in whole 
or in part of istle or tampico fibre, manila, sisal grass or sunn), l£c. 
per tt>; all binding twine manufactured in whole or in part from istle or 
tampico fibre, manila, sisal grass or sunn, seven-tenths of lc. per ft>.; 
cables andcordage made of hemp 2^c per Ife.; tarred cables and cordage 
3c. per pound. 

Hemp and jute carpets and carpetings, 6c. per square yard. 

Burlaps not exceeding 60 inches in width, or flax, jute or hemp, or of 
which flax, jute or hemp, or either of them, shall be the compontent 
material of chief value (except such as ma} 7 be suitable for bagging for 
cotton), 15 gc. per pound. 

Bags for g-rain made of burlaps 2c. per pound. 

Bagging for cotton, gunny cloth, and all similar material suitasle 
for covering cotton, composed in whole or in part of hemp, flax or jute 
butts, valued at 6c. or less per sq. ) T d., 1 6-10c. per sq. yd.; valued at 
more than 6c. per sq. yd. 1 8-10c. per square 3^ard. 

Oil -cloth for floors, stamped, painted or printed, including linoleum, 
corticene, cork-carpets, figured or plain and all other oil-cloth (except 
silk oil-cloth ), and water-proof cloth, not specially provided for in this 
.act, valued at 25c or less per sq. )^d., 40 p. c. ad valorem; valued above 
25c per sq. yd., 15c. per sq. yd. and 30 p. c. ad valorem. 

All manufactures of flax or hemp, or of which these substances, or 
either of them, is the compontent material of chief value, not specially 
provided for in this act, 50 p. c. ad valorem; Provided, that untill Jan. 1 
1894, such manufactures of flax containing more than 100 threads to the 
square inch, counting both warp ahd filling, shall be subject to a duty 
of 35c. p. c. ad valorem in lieu of the duty herein provided. 

Collars and cuffs, composed entirely of cotton 15c. per dozen pieces 
and 35 p. c. ad valorem; composed in whole or in part of linen 30c. per 



218 THE TARIFF. 

dozen pieces and 40 p. c. ad valorem; shirts and all articles of wearing 
apparel of every description, not specially provided for in this act, com- 
posed wholly or in part of linen, 55 p. c. ad valorem. 

Laces, edgings, embroideries, inserting-s, neck rufflings, ruching-s, 
trimming's, tuckings, lace window curtins, and other similar tamboured 
articles, and articles embroidered by hand or machinery, embroidered 
and hemstitched handkerchiefs, and articles made wholly or in part of 
lace, rufflings, tuckings or ruchings, all of the above-named articles 
composed of flax, jute, cotton, or other vegetable fibre, or of which 
these substances or either of them, or a mixture of any of them is com- 
ponent material of chief value, not specially provided for in this act, 
60 p. c. ad valorem: Provided, that articles of wearing aparel, and tex- 
tile fabrics, when embroidered by hand or machinery, and whether spec- 
ial ly or otherwise provided for in this act, shall not pay a less rate than 
that fixed by the respective paragraphs and schedules of this act upon 
embroideries of the materials of which they are respectively composed. 

All manufactures of jute, or other veg-etable fibre, except flax, hemp 
or cotton, or of which jute, or other vegetable fibre, except flax, hemp 
ro cotton is the component material of chief value, not specially pro- 
vided for in this act, valued at 5c. per ft. or less, 2c. lb.; valued above 
5c, per ft., 40 p. c. ad valorem. 

WOOL AND MANUFACTURES OF WOOL. 

All wools, hair of the camel, goat, alpaca and other like animals 
shall be divided for the purpose of fixing the duties to be charged upon 
them, into the three following classes: 

Class one, that is to say, merino, mestiza, metz or metis wools, or 
other wools of merino blood, immediate or remote, Down clothing wools 
and wools of like character with any of the preceeding, including such 
as have been heretofore usually imported into the United States from 
Buenos Ayres, New Zealand, Australia, Cape of Good Hope, Russia, 
Great Brittain, Canada and elsewhere, and also including - all wools not 
hereinafter described or designated in classes two and three. 

Class two, that is to say, Leicester, Cotswold, Lincolnshire, Down 
combing wools, Canada long wools, or other like combing wools of En- 
glish blood, and usually known by the terms herein used, and also hair 
of the camel goat, alpaca and other like animals. 

Class three, that is to say Donskoi, native South American, Cordova, 
Valparaiso, Russian camel's hair, and including all such wools of like 
character as have been heretofore usually imported into the United 
States from Turkey, Greece, Egypt, Syria, and elsewhere, excepting 
improved wools hereinafter provided for. 

The duty on wools of the first class which is imported washed, shall 
be twice the amount of duty imposed on the unwashed wool; and the 
duty on wools of the first and second classes which is imported scoured, 
shall be three times the duty imposed if imported unwashed. 

Unwashed wools shall be considered such as shall have been shorn 
from the sheep without any cleansing; that is, in the natural conditon. 
Washed wools shall be considered such as have been washed with water 
on the sheep's back. Wool washed in any other manner than on the 
sheep's back shall be considered as scoured wool. 

The duty upon all wools and hair of the first class shall be lie per 



THE TARIFF. 219 

lb., and upon all wools or hair of the second class 12c per pound. 

On wools of the third class, and on camel's hair of the third class 
the value whereof shall exceed 13c per lb., including- charges, the duty 
shall be 32 per cent ad valorem. If the value exceeds 13c per lb. the 
duty shall be 50 per cent ad valorem. 

On woolen and worsted yarns made wholly or in part of wool, worsted 
or the hair of the camel, goat, alpaca or other animals, valued at not 
more than 30c per lb., the duty per lb. shall be two and one-half times 
the duty on unwashed wool of the first class, and in addition thereto 35 
p. c. ad valorem; valued at more than 30c and less than 40c per lb. the 
duty shall be three times that imposed on unwashed wool of the first 
class, and in addition thereto 35 p. c. ad valorem; valued at over 40c 
per lb. the duty shall be three and a half times that imposed on un- 
washed wool of the first class, and in addition 40 p. c. ad valorem. 

On woolen or worsted cloths, shawls, knit fabrics, and fabrics' made 
on knitting machines or frames, and all manufactures of every descrip- 
tion made wholly or in part of wool, worsted, the hair of the camel, al- 
paca, goat or other animals not specially provided in this act, valued at 
not more than 30c per lb. the duty per lb. shall be three times the duty 
imposed on a lb. of unwashed wool of the first class, and in addition 40 
p. c. ad valorem; valued at more than 30c and less than 40c per lb. the 
duty per pound shall be three and one-half times the duty imposed on a 
pound of unwashed wool of the first class, and in addition thereto 40 p. 
c. ad valorem; valued at above 40c per lb., four times the duty on a lb.' 
of unwashed wool of the first class and 50 p. c. ad valorem. 

On blankets, hats of wool, and flannels for underwear, composed in 
part or wholly of wool, valued at not more than 30c per lb., the duty 
per lb. shall be the same as that imposed on 1£ lb. of unwashed wool of 
the first class, and in addition 30 p. c. ad valorem; valued at more than 
30c and less than 40c per lb., the duty per lb. shall be twice the duty 
imposed on a pound of unwashed wool of the first class; valued at over 
40c and under 50c per lb., the duty per lb. shall be three times that on 
a pound of unwashed wool of the first class; and in addition thereto up- 
on all of the above named articles 35 p. c. ad valorem. On blankets and 
hats of wool composed of wool or hair, wholly or in part, valued at over 
50c per lb. the duty shall be three and a half times the duty imposed on 
a lb. of unwashed wool of the first class, and in addition 35 p. c. ad val. 
Flannels composed wholly or in part of wool or hair, valued at above 50 
cts a pound, shall be classified to pay the same duty as dress goods, coat 
linings*, Italian cloths, and goods of similar character and description 
provided by this act. 

On women's and children's dress goods, coat linings, Italian cloths, 
and goods of similar character and description of which the warp con- 
sists wholly of cotton or other vegetable material, valued at not exceed- 
ing 15c per sq. yd, 7c per sq. yd. and in addition thereto 40 p. c. ad val 
valued at above 15c per sq. yd., 8c per sq. yard and in addition thereto 
50 p. c. ad valorem. Provided, That on all such goods weighing over 
4 ounces per square yard the duty per pound shall be four times that on 
a pound of unwashed wool of the first class and in addition thereto 50 
per cent ad valorem. 

On women's and children's dress goods and similar fabrics not spec- 
ially provided for in this act the duty shall be 12c per square yard and 



220 THE TARIFF. 

50 p. c. ad valorem. Bnt if such goods weigh over 4 ounces to the sq. 
yd the duty shall be four times that on a lb of unwashed wool of first 
class and in addition thereto 50 p. c ad valorem. 

On clothing - , ready made, and articles of wearing- apparel of every 
description not specially provided for in this act, and plushes and other 
pile fabrics, composed wholly or in part of wool the duty per lb. shall 
be four and one-half times the duty on a pound of unwashed wool of 
the first class and in addition thereto 60 per cent advalurem. 

On cloaks, dolmans, jackets, ulsters, or other wraps or outside gar- 
ments composed wholly or in part of wool, the duty per lb. shall be 
four and one-half times the duty imposed on a lb. of unwashed wool of 
the first class, and in addition thereto 60 per cent ad valorem. 

On webbings, gorings, suspenders, braces, bindings, braids, galloons, 
fringes, cords and tassles, laces and embroideries, head nets or buttons 
of any kind made wholly or in part of wool, the duty shall be 60c per 
pound and in addition thereto 60 p. c. ad valorem. 

[For Tariff on Carpets, Rugs and Mats, see Page 36.] 

NEEDLES. 

Needles for knitting or sewing machines, chrochet and tape needles 
anp bodkins of metal, 35 p. c. ad valorem. 

Needles, knitting and all others not specially provided for in this act, 
25 p. c, ad valorem. 

BUTTONS AND BUTTON FORMS. 

Button forms; Lastings, mohair, cloth, silk or other manufactures of 
cloth, woven or made in patterns or such size, shape or form, or cut in 
such manner as to be fit for buttons exclusively, 10 per cent ad valorem. 

Buttons, commercially known as agate buttons, 25 per cent ad val. 

Pearl and shell buttons 2/4 c per line, button measure of one-fortieth 
of an inch, per gross, and in addition thereto 25 per cent ad valorem. 

Ivory, vegetable ivory, bone or horn buttons, 50 per cent advalorem. 

Shoe buttons made of paper, board, papier mache, pulp or other sim- 
ilar material not specially provided for in this act. valued at not less 
3c per gross lc per gross. 

LEATHER AND MANUFACTURES OF LEATHER. 

Calf skins tanned, dressed upper leather, including- patent, japanned 
and enamelled leather; chamois or other skins not specially enumerated 
or provided for in this act, 20 p. c. advalorem; bookbinders' calf skins, 
kangaroo, sheep snd goat skins, including lamb and kid skins, dressed 
and finished, 20 p. c. ad valorem; skins for morocco, tanned but unfin- 
ished, 10 per cent ad valorem; japanned calf skins, 30 p. c. ad valorem; 
boots and shoes made of leather, 25 per cent ad valorem. 

Gloves of all descriptions, composed wholly or in part of kid or other 
leather, shall pay at the rates fixed in connection with the following 
specific kinds thereof, 14 inches in extreme length when stretched to 
the full extent, being in each case hereby fixed as the standard, and 1 
doz«m pairs as the basis, namely: Ladies' and children's sehmasehen 
of said length or under, $1 75 per dozen; ladies' and children's lamb of 
said lensrth or under, S2 25 per dozen; ladies' and children's kid of said 



THE TARIFF. 221 

length or under, $3 25 per dozen; ladies' and children's suedes, of said 
length or under, 50 p. c. ad valorem; all other ladies' and children's 
gloves and all men's leather gloves of said length or under, 50 p. c. ad 
valorem; all leather gloves over 14 inches in length, 50 p. c. advalorem, 
and in addition to the above rates there shall be paid on all men's gloves 
$1 per dozen; on all lined gloves $1 per dozen; on all piqua or prick seam 
gloves 50c per dozen; on all embroidered gloves with more than three 
single strands or cords, 50c per dozen pairs. Provided, That all gloves 
represented to be of a kind or grade below their actual kind or grade 
shall pay an additional duty of S5 per dozen pairs. Provided further, 
That none of the articles mentioned in this paragraph shall pay a less 
rate of duty than 50 p. c. ad valorem. 

MISCELLANEOUS MANUFACTURES. 

Feathers and downs of all kinds, not specially provided for in this 
act 10 per cent ad valorem. Manufactured articles of feathers and down 
including dressed and'rinished birds suitable for millinery ornaments, 
50 per cent ad valorem. 

Furs, dressed on the skin but not made up into articles, and furs not 
on the skin, prepared for hatters' use, 20 per cent ad valorem. 

Glass beads, unthreaded, or unstrung, 10 per cent ad valorem. 

Hair cloth, known as crinoline cloth, 8 cents per square yard. 

Hair cloth, known as hair seating, 30 cents per square yard. 

Hair, curled, suitable for beds and mattresses, 15 p. c. ad valorem. 

Manufactures of bone, chip, grass, horn, India-rubber, palm-leaf, 
straw, weeds or whalebone, not specially provided for in this act, 30 p.c. 

Matting made of cocoa-fibre or rattan, 12c per sq. yd.; mats made of 
same 8c per sq. foot. 

Plush, black, known commercially as hatters' plush, composed of silk 
or silk and cotton, and used exclusively for making men's hats, 10 p. c. 

Umbrellas, parasols and sunshades, covered with silk or alpaca, 55 
p. c. ; if covered with any other material 40 p. c. 

Handles for umbrellas, parasols and sunshades, if plain 35- p. c. ; if 
carved, 50 p. c. 

FREE LIST. 

On and after the 6th day of October, 1890, unless otherwise specially 
provided for in this act, the following articles when imported shall be 
exempt from duty : 

Bolting cloth, especially for milling purposes, but not suitable for 
wearing apparel. 

Coir and coir yarn. 

Cotton and cotton waste, or flocks. 

Fans, common palm leaf, and palm leaf unmanufactured. 

Floor matting manufactured from round or split straw, including 
what is commonly known as China matting (old tariff 20 p. c.) 

Furs, undressed. 

Istle, or Tampico fibre. 

Jute and jute butts; manila sisal grass and sunn. 

Hides, raw or uncured, whether dry, salted or pickled. Angora goat 
skins, raw, withot the wool, asses' skins, and all other skins, with the 
wool on, except sheep skins. 



222 THE TARIFF. \ 

India-rubber, crude, and milk of, and old scrap or refuse India-rubber 
which has been worn out by use and is fit only for remanufacture. 

Ivory and vegetable ivory, not manufactured. 

Needles, hand sewing - and darning 1 . 

Silk, raw, or as reeled from the cocoon, but not doubled, twisted or 
advanced in mannfacture in any way. 

Whalebone, unmanufactured. 



That on and after the first day of March, 1891, all articles of foreign 
manufacture, such as are usually or ordinarily marked, stamped, brand- 
ed, or labeled, and all packages containing such or other imported arti- 
cles, shall respectively, be plainly marked, stamped, branded, or labeled 
in legible English words, so as to indicate the country of their origin; 
aad unless so marked, stamped, branded, or labeled the}* shall not be 
admitted to entry. 



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